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Vedic Mythology c5.s3.t2: § 35. Agni

Vedic Mythology c5.s3.t2

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§ 35. Agni

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— The chief terrestrial deity is Agni, being naturally of primary importance as the personification of the sacrificial fire, which is the centre of the ritual poetry of the Veda. Next to Indra he is the most prominent of the Vedic gods. He is celebrated in at least 200 hymns of the RV., and in several besides he is invoked conjointly with other deities.

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As his name is also the regular designation of fire, the anthropomorphism of his physical appearance is only rudimentary, his bodily parts having a clear reference to the phenomena of terrestrial fire mainly in its sacrificial aspect. He is butter-backed (5, 4^3 &c.), butter-faced (3, 1^ &c.) and beautiful-tongued (1, 14^7). He is butter-haired (8, 49^2), flame-haired (1, 45^6 &c.) or tawny-haired (3, 2^), and has a tawny beard (5, 7^7). He has sharp (8, 49^3 &c.) or burning jaws (1, 58^5 &c.), golden (5, 2^3) or shining teeth (5, 7^4) and iron grinders (10, 87^2). He is once described as footless and headless (4, 1^), but elsewhere he is said to have a burning head (7, 3¹) or three heads and seven rays (1, 146¹; 2, 5³). He faces in all directions (2, 3¹ &c.). His tongue is often mentioned (8, 61¹⁸ &c.). He is also said to have three tongues (3, 20²) or seven (VS. 17, 79), his steeds also being seven-tongued (3, 6²). A name was later given to each of these seven tongues¹. Butter is Agni's eye (3, 26⁷); he is four-eyed (1, 31¹³), thousand-eyed (1, 79¹²), and thousand-horned (6, 1⁸). In his hand he bears many gifts for men (1, 72¹). Like Indra, he has the epithet *sahasra-muṣka* (8, 19³²). He is called an archer (4, 4¹) or is compared with an archer (1, 70¹¹), who sharpens his flame like a blade of iron (6, 3⁵).

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He is often likened to various animals, in most cases doubtless with a view to indicating his functions rather than representing his personal form. He is frequently called a bull (1, 58⁵ &c.). He is a strong bull with a mighty neck (5, 2¹²). As such he bellows (10, 8¹), abounds in seed (4, 5³), and is provided with horns (5, 1⁸; 6, 16³⁹), which he sharpens (8, 49¹⁵), which he shakes, and which make him difficult to seize (1, 140⁶). He is many times spoken of or alluded to when born as a calf (*vatsa*). He is also often compared with (1, 58² &c.) or directly called a steed (1, 149³; 6, 12⁶)². The tail which he agitates like a horse (2, 4⁴) is doubtless his flame. When purified by sacrificers he is compared with a groomed horse (1, 60⁵ &c.). Sacrificers lead (3, 2⁷), excite, and set him in motion like a horse (7, 7¹ &c.). He is the horse they seek to tame and direct (2, 5¹; 3, 27³). He is kindled like a horse that brings the gods (3, 27¹⁴). He is attached to the pole at places of sacrifice (2, 2¹) or to the pole of the rite (1, 143⁷). He is yoked in order to waft the sacrifice to the gods (10, 51⁷). He is also compared with (3, 26³) or directly called a neighing steed (1, 36⁸). He is further likened to a horse as conquering (8, 91¹²) or causing to escape from dangers (4, 2⁸). Agni is, moreover, like a bird. He is the eagle of the sky (7, 15⁴) and a divine bird (1, 164⁵²). As dwelling in the waters he resembles the aquatic bird *haṃsa* (1, 65⁹). He takes possession of the wood as a bird perches on a tree (1, 66²; 6, 3⁵; 10, 91²). He is winged (1, 58⁵; 2, 2⁴), his course is a flight (6, 3⁷. 4⁶ &c.), and he darts with rapid flight to the gods (10, 6⁴). He is once described as a raging serpent (1, 79¹).

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Agni is besides frequently compared with inanimate objects. Like the sun, he resembles gold (2, 2⁴; 7, 3⁶). When he stretches out his tongue (6, 3⁴) he is like a hatchet, to which he is elsewhere also several times compared (1, 127³ &c.). He resembles (1, 141⁸ &c.) or is directly called a car (3, 11⁵), as bringing riches (1, 58³; 3, 15⁵) or as being formidable in battle (1, 66⁶). He seems to be thought of as a car directed by others, for he is conducted to the sacrifice like a laden car (10, 176³). He is even compared to wealth (1, 58⁶. 60¹) or to wealth acquired by inheritance (1, 73¹).

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Wood (2, 7⁶) or ghee (7, 3¹) is his food, melted butter is his beverage (2, 7⁶; 10, 69²). He is nourished by ghee poured into his mouth (3, 21¹; 5, 11³ &c.) and is an eater of oil (AV. 1, 7²). He eats and chews the forests with sharp tooth (1, 143⁵) or eats and blackens them with his tongue (6, 60¹⁰; 10, 79²). He is all-devouring (8, 44²⁶). He is nourished three times a day (4, 12¹, cp. 1, 140²; 7, 11³). He is sometimes spoken of as the mouth and the tongue by which the gods eat the sacrifice (2, 1¹³˙ ¹⁴); and his flames are spoons with which he besprinkles or honours the gods (1, 76⁵; 10, 6⁴). But he is more frequently asked to eat the offerings himself (3, 21¹⁻⁴. 28¹⁻⁶). With upright, god-ward form he strives after the ghee that is offered (1, 127¹). Though the regular offering to him is fuel or butter³, he is sometimes, and then nearly always with other gods, invited to drink the Soma juice (1, 14¹⁰.

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19⁹. 21¹cdot 3; 2, 36⁴). In one hymn he is called *somagopā*, 'guardian of Soma' (10, 45⁵. ¹²). He is invited to come to the sacrifice (10, 98⁹) and is often spoken of as sitting down on the sacrificial grass along with the gods (3, 14²; 5, 11². 26⁵; 7, 11², cp. 43³).

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Agni's brightness is naturally much dwelt upon. He is of brilliant lustre (2, 10² &c.), brilliant-flamed (6, 10³), bright-flamed (7, 15¹⁰ &c.), clear-flamed (8, 43³¹), and bright-coloured (1, 140¹; 5, 2³). He has a golden form (4, 3¹ 10, 20⁹). He shines like the sun (1, 149³; 7, 3⁶). His lustre is like the rays of the dawn and the sun and like the lightnings of the rain-cloud (10, 91⁴⁻⁵). He shines even at night (5, 7⁴). Like the sun he dispels the darkness with his rays (8, 43³²). He is a destroyer of darkness and sees through the gloom of the night (1, 94⁵; 7, 9²). Kindled he opens the gates of darkness (3, 5¹). The earth enveloped in darkness and the sky become visible when Agni is born (10, 88²). For he is kindled at dawn and is the only individual god who is described as 'waking at dawn', *uṣarbudh* (though the gods collectively sometimes receive this epithet).

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On the other hand, Agni's course, path, or track, and his fellies are black (1, 141⁷; 2, 4⁶. ⁷; 6, 6¹; 7, 8²; 8, 23¹⁹), and his steeds make black furrows (1, 140⁴). Driven by the wind he rushes through the wood (1, 58⁴⁻⁵), invades the forests and shears the hairs of the earth (1, 65⁸), shaving the earth as a barber a beard (10, 142⁴).

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His flames are like the roaring waves of the sea (1, 44¹²). His sound is like the Wind or the thunder of Heaven (5, 25⁸; 7, 3⁶). He roars like the thundering Dyaus (10, 45⁴), or Parjanya (8, 91⁵), or a lion (3, 2¹¹). He bellows like a bull when he invades the forest trees, and the birds are terrified at the noise when his grass-devouring sparks arise (1, 94¹⁰. ¹¹). He cannot be checked any more than the sound of the Maruts, an army let loose, or the bolt of heaven (1, 143⁵).

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Agni flames upwards (6, 15²). Driven by the wind his flames shoot into the sky (8, 43⁴). His smoke wavers and his flame cannot be seized (8, 23¹). His red smoke rises up to heaven (7, 3³. 16³). His smoke spreads in the sky (6, 2⁶). Like the erector of a post (*metṛ*), he supports the sky with his smoke (4, 6²). He touches the ridge of heaven with his crest and mingles with the rays of the sun (7, 2¹). He encompasses heaven with his tongue (8, 61¹⁸) and goes to the flood of heaven, to the waters in the bright space above and below the sun (3, 22³). The Agni of Divodāsa spread along mother earth towards the gods and stood on the ridge of the sky (8, 92²). 'Smoke-bannered' (*dhūmaketu*) is a frequent epithet exclusively connected with Agni.

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Agni is borne on an lightning car (3, 14¹), on a car that is luminous (1, 140¹), bright (1, 141¹²), shining (5, 1¹¹), brilliant (10, 1⁵), golden (4, 1⁸) or beautiful (4, 2⁴). It is drawn by two or more horses⁴, which are butter-backed (1, 14⁶), ruddy (*rohita*, *aruṣa*), tawny and ruddy (7, 42²), beautiful (4, 2²), omniform (10, 70²), active (2, 4²), wind-impelled (1, 94¹⁰), mind-yoked (1, 14⁶). He yokes them to summon the gods (1, 14¹²; 3, 6⁶; 8, 64¹). For he is a charioteer (1, 25³ &c.) of the sacrifice (10, 92¹ &c.). With his steeds he brings the gods on his car (3, 6⁹). He comes seated on the same car as the gods (3, 4¹¹; 7, 11¹) or in advance of them (10, 70²). He brings Varuṇa to the offering, Indra from the sky, the Maruts from the air (10, 70¹¹).

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According to the ordinary view of the Vedic poets, Agni's father is Dyaus, who generated him (10, 45⁸). He is the child (*śiśu*) of Dyaus (4, 15⁶; 6, 49²) and is said to have been born from the belly of the Asura⁵ (3, 29⁴). He is often called the son of Dyaus and Pṛthivī (3, 2². 3¹¹. 25¹; 10, 1². 2⁷.

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140²). He is also spoken of as the offspring of Tvaṣṭṛ and the Waters, as well as of Heaven and Earth (10, 27. 46⁹), or even simply of Tvaṣṭṛ (1, 95²) or of the Waters (10, 91⁶; AV. 1, 33¹). It is otherwise incidentally said that the Dawns generated Agni as well as the Sun and Sacrifice (7, 78³) or Indra-Viṣṇu generated Agni besides Sun and Dawn (7, 99⁴), or Indra generated Agni between two stones (2, 12³, cp. 1¹). Agni is also described as the son of Iḷā (3, 29³) or as the embryo of the rite (6, 48⁵). The gods, it is sometimes said, generated him (6, 7¹; 8, 91¹⁷), as a light for the Āryan (1, 59²), or simply fashioned him for man (10, 46⁹) or placed him among men (1, 36¹⁰; 2, 4³; 6, 16¹; 8, 73²). At the same time Agni is the father of the gods (1, 69¹, cp. p. 12). The different points of view which give rise to these seemingly contradictory statements, are sufficiently clear.

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Owing to his slightly developed anthropomorphism, the myths of Agni have little to say about his deeds, being, outside his main activity as sacrificial fire, chiefly concerned with his various births, forms, and abodes.

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The divergent accounts given of the births of Agni are not inconsistent, because they refer to different places of origin. His daily terrestrial birth by friction from the two *araṇīs* or firesticks⁶ is often referred to (3, 29². 23²⁻³; 7, 1¹; 10, 7⁹). In this connexion they are his parents, the upper being the male and the lower the female (3, 29³). Or they are his mothers, for he is said to have two mothers (1, 31²)⁷. The two sticks produce him as a newborn infant, who is hard to catch (5, 9³⁻⁴). From the dry (wood) the god is born living (1, 68²). The child as soon as born devours the parents (10, 79⁴). He is born of a mother who cannot suckle him (10, 115¹). With reference to this production by friction, men are said to have generated him (1, 60³; 4, 1¹; 7, 1¹), the ten maidens⁸ that produce him (1, 95²) being the ten fingers (cp. 3, 23¹) employed in twirling the upright drill, which is the upper *araṇī*. *Pramantha*, the name of this fire-drill, occuring for the first time in a late metrical Smṛti work⁹, the Karmapradīpa (1, 75)¹⁰ has, owing to a superficial resemblance, been connected with Προμηθεύς¹¹. The latter word has, however, every appearance of being a purely Greek formation, while the Indian verb *math*, to twirl, is found compounded only with *nis*, never with *pra*, to express the act of producing fire by friction.

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The powerful friction necessary to produce fire is probably the reason why Agni is frequently called the ‘son (*sūnu*, *putra*, once *yuvan*) of strength’ (*sahasaḥ*)¹². This explanation is supported by a passage of the RV. stating that Agni ‘rubbed with strength (*sahasā*) is produced (*jāyate*) by men on the surface of the earth’ (6, 48⁵). According to a later text, the kindling of Agni by friction must not take place before sunrise (MS. 1, 6¹⁰). Being produced every morning for the sacrifice Agni appropriately receives the very frequent epithet, exclusively connected with him, of ‘youngest’ (*yaviṣṭha*, *yaviṣṭhya*). His new births are opposed to his old (3, 1²⁰). Having grown old he is born again as a youth (2, 4⁵). In this sense, he does not grow old (1, 128²), his new light being like his old (6, 16²¹). Like some other gods, Agni is also spoken of simply as ‘young’. At the same time he is old. There is no sacrificer older than Agni (5, 3⁵), for he conducted the first sacrifice (3, 15⁴). He shone forth after former dawns (1, 44¹⁰), and the part played by Agni in the sacrifices of ancestors is often referred to (8, 43¹³ &c.). He is thus sometimes in the same passage paradoxically called both ‘ancient’ and ‘very young’ (10, 4¹⁻²).

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More generally Agni is spoken of as born in wood (6, 3³; 10, 79⁷), as the embryo of plants (2, 1¹⁴; 3, 1¹³) or as distributed in plants (10, 1²). He is also said to have entered into all plants or to strive after them (8, 43⁹).

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When he is called the embryo of trees (1, 70⁴) or of trees as well as plants (2, 1¹), there may be a side-glance at the fire produced in forests by the friction of the boughs of trees.

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The terrestrial existence of Agni is further indicated by his being called the 'navel of the earth' (1, 59²). This expression appears, in the many passages in which it occurs, to allude to the receptacle of the sacrificial Agni on the excavated altar or *vedi*¹³. In the Vedic ritual *nābhi* or 'navel' is the technical term designating the hollow in the *uttarā vedi*, in which Agni is deposited¹⁴. The earlier use of the term probably suggested the figure, that the gods made Agni the 'navel' or centre of immortality (3, 17⁴). The only two occurrences in the RV. of the attribute *vediṣad*, 'sitting on the altar', refer to Agni.

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Agni's origin in the aerial waters is often referred to. The 'Son of waters' has, as has been shown (§ 24), become a distinct deity. Agni is also the 'embryo' (*garbha*) of the waters (3, 1¹². ¹³); he is kindled in the waters (10, 45¹; AV. 13, 1⁵⁰); he is a bull who has grown in the lap of the waters (10, 8¹); he is ocean-girt (8, 91⁵). He is also said to descend from the *dhanu* or cloud-island (1, 144⁵; 10, 4⁵) and to be the shining thunder dwelling in the bright space (6, 6²). In such passages the lightning form of Agni must be meant. Some of the later hymns of the RV. (10, 51—3. 124)¹⁵ tell a legend of Agni hiding in the waters and plants and being found by the gods. This legend is also often related in the Brāhmaṇas¹⁶. In the AV. the Agnis in the waters are distinguished from those that go on the path of lightning or from the celestial Agni with the lightning (AV. 3, 21¹· ⁷; 8, 1¹¹) and are said to have dwelt on earth (AV. 12, 1³⁷). In one passage of the RV. also it is stated that Agni rests in all streams (8, 39⁸, cp. Āp. SS. 5, 2¹); and in the later ritual texts Agni in the waters is invoked in connexion with ponds and water-vessels. Thus even in the oldest Vedic period, the waters in which Agni is latent, though not those from which he is produced, may in various passages have been regarded as terrestrial. Oldenberg¹⁷ thinks that the terrestrial waters are chiefly meant in this connexion and doubts whether the lightning Agni is intended even in the first hymn of the third book¹⁸. In any case, the notion of Agni in the waters is prominent throughout the Vedas. Water is Agni's home, as heaven is that of the sun (5, 85²: cp. AV. 13, 1⁵⁰; 19, 33¹). The waters are also often mentioned along with the plants or wood as his abode¹⁹ (2, 1¹ &c.).

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Agni's origin in heaven is moreover frequently spoken of. He is born in the highest heavens (1, 143²; 6, 8²). He existed potentially though not actually in the highest heavens (10, 5⁷), and was brought from heaven, from afar by Mātariśvan (§ 25). In such passages Agni doubtless represents lightning; for lightning is regarded as coming from heaven as well as from the waters (AV. 3, 21¹· ⁷; 8, 1¹¹), and in a Brāhmaṇa passage (AB. 7, 7²) it is spoken of as both celestial (*divya*) and aqueous (*apsumat*). When lightning is mentioned by its proper name *vidyut* (which occurs hardly 30 times in the RV.) along with Agni, it is commonly compared with and thereby distinguished from him²⁰, doubtless as a concrete phenomenon in contrast with the god. The myth, too, of the descent of fire from heaven to earth, due undoubtedly to the actual observation of conflagrations caused by the stroke of lightning, implies the identity of the celestial Agni and lightning. The heavenly origin of Agni is further implied in the fact that the acquisition of fire by man is regarded as a gift of the gods as well as a production of Mātariśvan; and Agni's frequent epithet of 'guest (*atithi*) of men' may allude to the same notion (5, 1⁹ &c.).

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In other passages, again, Agni is to be identified with the sun; for the conception of the sun as a form of Agni, is an undoubted Vedic belief. Thus Agni is the light of heaven in the bright sky, waking at dawn, the head of heaven (3, 2¹⁴). He was born on the other side of the air and sees all things (10, 1874·5). He is born as the sun rising in the morning (10, 88⁶)2I. The AB. (8, 289· I3) remarks that the sun when setting enters into Agni and is produced from him. The same identification is probably alluded to in passages stating that Agni unites with the light or the rays of the sun (5, 37I; 7, 2I), that when men light Agni on earth, the celestials light him (6, 2³), or that Agni shines in heaven (3, 27I2; 8, 44²⁹). Sometimes, however, it is difficult to decide whether lightning or the sun is intended. The solar aspect of Agni's nature is not often mentioned, the sun being too individual a phenomenon to be generally conceived as a form of fire. Agni is usually thought of in his terrestrial form, being compared rather than identified with the sun. Thus the poet says that the minds of the godly are turned to Agni as eyes towards the sun (5, I⁴). At the same time there is frequently a side-glance at Agni's other forms, it being therefore in many cases doubtful which of his aspects is intended.

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Owing to the diverse births above described, Agni is often regarded as having a triple character²², which in many passages is expressly referred to with some form of the numeral 'three'. This earliest Indian trinity is important, for on it is based much of the mystical speculation of the Vedic age²³. Agni's births are three or threefold (I, 95³; 4, I⁷). The gods made him threefold (10, 88I0). He is threefold light (3, 26⁷), has three heads (I, I46I), three tongues, three bodies, three stations (3, 20²). The epithet *triṣadhastha*, 'having three stations', is predominantly connected with Agni²⁴, and the only passage in which the word *tripastya*, 'having three dwellings', occurs (8, 39⁸), it is an attribute of Agni. The triad is not always understood in exactly the same way or mentioned in the same order. Thus one poet says: 'From heaven first Agni was born, the second time from us (= men), thirdly in the waters (I0, 45I, cp. vv. 2·3). The order of Agni's abodes is also heaven, earth, waters in other passages (8, 44I6; I0, 2⁷. 46⁹), while one verse (I, 95³) has the variation: ocean, heaven, waters. Sometimes the terrestrial Agni comes first: 'He was first born in houses, at the base of great heaven, in the womb of this atmosphere' (4, III); 'the immortals kindled three flames of Agni: of these they placed one with man, for use, and two went to the sister-world' (3, 2⁹). A Sūtra passage (Āp. ŚS. 5, I6⁴) distinguishes a terrestrial Agni in animals, an aerial one in the waters, and a celestial one in the sun. Occasionally the terrestrial Agni comes third. He is one of three brothers of whom 'the middlemost brother is lightning (*aśnaḥ*) and the third is butter-backed' (I, I64I, cp. I4I²). 'Agni glows from the sky, to god Agni belongs the broad air, men kindle Agni, bearer of oblations, lover of ghee' (AV. I2, I²⁰, cp. I3, 32I; I8, 4II).

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The third form of Agni is once spoken of as the highest (I0, I³; cp. 5, 3³; I, 722·4). Yāska (Nir. 7, 28) mentions that his predecessor Śākapūṇi regarded the threefold existence of Agni referred to in I0, 88I0 as being in earth, air, and heaven, a certain Brāhmaṇa considering Agni's third manifestation, which is in heaven, to be the sun (cp. Nir. I2, I9). This threefold nature of Agni, so clearly recognised in the RV., was probably the prototype not only of the posterior triad of Sun, Wind, Fire (8, I8I9), which is spoken of as distributed in the three worlds (I0, I58I; AV. 4, 39²) and is implied in another verse (I, I64⁴⁴), but also of the triad of Sun, Indra, Fire, which though not Rigvedic is still ancient. Here Vāta or Vāyu and Indra have taken the place of Agni Vaidyuta, the lightning Agni, as the Brāhmaṇas and commentators call him. This substitution is perhaps partly due to the transient nature of lightning and partly to the lack of any name other than Agni for the personified lightning, which could therefore be expressed only by epithets or allusions. The triad of Agnis may have suggested and would explain the division of the sacrificial fire into the three sacrificial fires²⁵ which in the Vedic ritual are kept distinct from the domestic fire²⁶ and which form an essential feature of the cult in the Brāhmaṇas²⁷. The ritual may have then reacted on the myth. At any rate, later Hindu literature took the three fires as representative of the three forms of Agni known to the RV.²⁸ The three sacrificial fires may go back to the time of the RV., possibly even to an anterior period²⁹. Thus Agni is besought to bring the gods and to seat himself in the three receptacles (*yoniṣu*: 2, 36⁴, cp. 5, 11²; 10, 105⁹).

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Doubtless on the basis of the twofold division of the Universe into heaven and earth, Agni is in several passages said to have two births, being the only single god spoken of as *dvijanman* (1, 60¹. 140². 149²· ³). An upper and a lower birth are mentioned (2, 9³), his abode in lower and upper spheres is referred to (1, 128³), and the opposition is generally between terrestrial and celestial fire (3, 54¹; 10, 45¹⁰), though in one passage at least (8, 43²⁸) the contrast is between his birth in heaven and in the waters. Agni is summoned from his supreme abode (8, 11⁷) and comes thence to the lower ones (8, 64¹⁵). When he is brought from the highest father he rises into the plants (1, 141⁴). Here Agni is conceived as coming down in rain and then entering the plants, out of which he is again produced. The fires, like water, after descending to earth again rise to heaven (1, 164⁵¹). On this distinction of two forms of fire are based such prayers as that Agni should sacrifice to himself (10, 7⁶), that he should bring Agni (7, 39⁵), or that he should descend with the gods to the sacrifice (3, 6⁹ &c.). Allied to this distinction is the notion that Agni was kindled by the gods as contrasted with men³⁰ (6, 2³). The latter notion is due to the assumption that celestial fires must be kindled by some one and gods must sacrifice like men (cp. AB. 2, 34).

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From another point of view, Agni is said to have many births (10, 5¹). This multiplicity no doubt primarily refers to the numerous fires kindled on terrestrial altars. For Agni is very frequently said to abide in every family, house, or abode (4, 6⁸. 7¹· ³; 5, 1⁵. 6⁸ &c.). He is produced in many places (3, 54¹⁹) and has many bodies (10, 98¹⁰). Scattered in many places, he is one and the same king (3, 55⁴). Kindled in many places, he is but one (Vāl. 10²). Other fires are attached to him as branches to a tree (8, 19³³). Thus he comes to be invoked with the Agnis (7, 3¹; 8, 18⁹. 49¹; 10, 141⁶) or all the Agnis (1, 26¹⁰; 6, 12⁶).

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The accounts given of Agni's abodes or birthplaces sometimes involve cross divisions. Thus his brilliance in heaven, earth, air, waters, and plants is referred to (3, 22²) or he is said to be born from the heavens, the waters, stone, woods, and plants (2, 1¹). Longer enumerations of a similar kind occasionally occur elsewhere (AV. 3, 21; 12, 1¹⁹; Āp. ŚS. 5, 16⁴). When Agni is said (1, 70⁴, cp. 6, 48⁵) to dwell in a rock (*adrau*) the reference is probably to the lightning latent in the cloud (cp. p. 10). The same is probably the case when he is said (2, 1¹) to be produced from a stone (*aśmanaḥ*) or to have been generated by Indra between two stones (2, 12³); but here there may lurk an allusion to the production of fire from flint. Animal heat is of course meant when Agni is said to be in the heart of man (10, 5¹), or in beasts, horses, birds, bipeds and quadrupeds (AV. 3, 21²; 12, 1¹⁹. 23³; TS. 4, 6, 1³). As being the spark of vitality and so widely diffused in nature, Agni naturally comes to be described as the germ (*garbha*) of what is stationary or moves and of all that exists (1, 70³; AV. 5, 25⁷).

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The triple nature of Agni gave rise to the notion of three brothers (1, 164¹); while the multiplicity of sacrificial fires may have suggested the idea of Agni's elder brothers who are spoken of in the plural (10, 51⁶). The number of these is later stated to be three (TS. 2, 6, 6¹). The same are probably meant by the four Hotṛs of the gods, of whom the first three died (Kāṭh. 25, 7)³¹. Varuṇa is once spoken of as Agni's brother (4, 1²). Elsewhere Indra is said to be his twin brother (6, 59²)³². Indra is indeed oftener associated with Agni than with any other god and is, with two slight exceptions, the only god with whom Agni forms a dual divinity (§ 44). It is doubtless owing to this association that Agni is described as bursting the rock with heat (8, 46¹⁶) and vanquishing the unbelieving Paṇis (7, 6³). In one entire hymn (1, 93) Agni is also coupled with Soma (§ 44).

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Agni is occasionally identified with other gods, especially with Varuṇa and Mitra³³ (2, 1⁴; 3, 5⁴; 7, 12³). He is Varuṇa when he goes to the sacrifice (10, 85). He is Varuṇa when he is born and Mitra when he is kindled (5, 3¹). Agni in the evening becomes Varuṇa, rising in the morning he becomes Mitra; becoming Savitṛ he traverses the air, becoming Indra he illumines the sky in the midst (AV. 13, 3¹³). In one passage of the RV. (2, 1³⁻⁷) he is successively identified with about a dozen gods besides five goddesses. He assumes various divine forms (3, 38⁷) and has many names (3, 20³). In him are comprehended all the gods (5, 3¹), whom he surrounds as a felly the spokes (5, 13⁶).

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What is probably the oldest function of fire in regard to its cult, that of burning and dispelling evil spirits and hostile magic, still survives in the Veda. Agni drives away the goblins with his light (3, 15¹ &c.)³⁴ and receives the epithet *rakṣohan*, 'goblin-slayer' (10, 87¹). When kindled he consumes with iron teeth and scorches with heat the sorcerers as well as the goblins (10, 87²· ⁵· ¹⁴), protecting the sacrifice with keen glance (ib. ⁹). He knows the races of the sorcerers and destroys them (AV. 1, 8⁴). Though this function of dispelling terrestrial demons is shared with Agni by Indra (as well as by Bṛhaspati, the Aśvins, and especially Soma), it must primarily have belonged to Agni alone, just as, conversely, that of slaying Asuras or aerial demons is transferred to Agni (7, 13¹) though properly peculiar to Indra. This is borne out by the fact that Agni is undoubtedly more prominent as a goblin-slayer than Indra, both in the hymns and in the ritual³⁵.

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Agni is more closely connected with human life than any other god. His association with the dwellings of men is peculiarly intimate. He is the only god to whom the frequent epithet *gṛhapati*, 'lord of the house', is applied. He dwells in every abode (7, 15²), never leaving his home (8, 49¹⁹). The attribute 'domestic' (*damūnas*) is generally connected with him (1, 60⁴ &c.). This household deity probably represents an old order of ideas; for in the later elaborate ritual of the three sacrificial fires, the one from which the other two (the *āhavanīya* or eastern and the *dakṣiṇa* or southern) were taken, is called the *gārhapatya* or that which belongs to *gṛhapati*. In this connexion it is interesting to observe that even as early as Rigvedic times there are traces of the sacrificial fire having been transported³⁶. For Agni is led round (4, 9³. 15¹), strides round the offerings (4, 15³) or goes round the sacrifice three times (4, 6⁴· ⁵. 15²); and as soon as he is released from his parents, he is led to the east and again to the west (1, 31⁴).

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He is further constantly designated a 'guest' (*atithi*) in human abodes. He is a guest in every house (10, 91²), the first guest of settlers (5, 8²). For he is an immortal (a term much more commonly applied to Agni than to any other god), who has taken up his abode among mortals (8, 60¹). He has been established or settled among human habitations (3, 5³; 4, 6²). It is the domestic Agni who caused mortals to settle (3, 1¹⁷). He is a leader (3, 2⁵) and a protector of settlers (1, 96⁴), and the epithet *viśpati*, ‘lord of settlers’ is mainly connected with him.

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Thus Agni comes to be called the nearest kinsman of man (7, 15¹; 8, 49¹⁰), or simply a kinsman (1, 26³ &c.) or a friend (1, 75⁴ &c.). But he is oftenest described as a father (6, 1⁵ &c.), sometimes also as a brother (8, 43¹⁶; 10, 7³ &c.), and even as a son (2, 1⁹) or mother (6, 1⁵), of his worshippers. Such terms seem to point to an older order of things, when Agni was less sacrificial and, as the centre of domestic life, produced an intimate relation such as is not easily found in the worship of other gods³⁷.

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The continuity of Agni’s presence in the house would naturally connect him more closely than any other god with the past. Hence the ancestral friendship of Agni with his worshipper (1, 71¹⁰) is probably more typical of him than of any other deity. He is the god whom the forefathers kindled, to whom they prayed. Thus mention is made of an Agni of Bharata (2, 7¹; 7, 8⁴ &c.), of Vadhryaśva (10, 69¹), of Devavāta (3, 23³), of Divodāsa (8, 92²), and of Trasadasyu (8, 19³²) ³⁸. The names of ancestors sometimes identified with Agni are in part those of families to which composers of the RV. belonged. Some of these, like Vasiṣṭha, seem to have had a historical origin, while others, like Aṅgiras (§ 54) and Bhṛgu (§ 51), are probably mythical (*cp.* § 58).

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Agni is further brought into close relations with the daily life of man in the sacrifice. He is, however, not merely a passive receiver of the offering, but is an intermediary between heaven and earth. He transmits the oblation to the gods, who do not get exhilarated without him (7, 11¹). On the other hand, he brings the gods (3, 14²) to the sacrifice as well as takes it to them (7, 11⁵). He seats them on the strewn grass (1, 31¹⁷; 8, 44³), to eat the offering (5, 1¹¹ &c.). He goes on the paths leading both to the gods (10, 98¹¹) and to earth (8, 7²), knowing these paths (6, 16³). He is therefore constantly and characteristically called a messenger (*dūta*), who knows the paths and conveys the sacrifice (1, 72⁷) or visits all abodes (4, 1⁸); who flies swiftly (10, 6⁴), moving between heaven and earth (4, 7⁸. 8⁴; 10, 4²), or the two races, gods and men (4, 2²·³); who has been appointed by the gods (5, 8⁶ &c.) and by men (10, 46¹⁰), to be an oblation-bearer (*havya-vah* or *-vāhana*, terms always connected with Agni) and to announce the hymn of the worshipper (1, 27⁴) or to bring the gods to the place of sacrifice (4, 8²). He is the messenger of the gods (6, 15⁹) and of Vivasvat (p. 42); but as knowing the innermost recesses of heaven, as conveying the sacrifice, and bringing the gods (4, 7⁸. 8²) he is mainly to be considered the messenger of men. A later text states that Agni is the messenger of the gods, and Kāvya Uśanas or Daivya that of the Asuras (TS. 2, 5, 8⁵. 11⁸). Another describes Agni not as the messenger of, but as the path leading to, the gods, by which the summit of heaven may be reached (TB. 2, 4, 1⁶).

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In consequence of his main function in the Veda of officiating at the sacrifice, Agni comes to be celebrated as the divine counterpart of the earthly priesthood. He is therefore often called generically the ‘priest’ (*ṛtvij*, *vipra*) or specifically the ‘domestic priest’ (*purohita*), and constantly, more frequently in fact than by any other name, the ‘offerer’ (*hotṛ*) or chief priest, who is poet and spokesman in one. He is a Hotṛ appointed by men (8, 49¹; 10, 7⁵) and by gods (6, 16¹). He is the most adorable, the most eminent of Hotṛs (10, 2¹. 91⁸). He is also termed an *adhvaryu* (3, 5⁴) and (like Bṛhaspati, Soma, and Indra) a *brahman* or praying priest (4, 9⁴). He combines in himself the functions, in a higher sense, of the various human priests called by the above and other specific names (1, 94⁶; 2, 1² &c.). He is constantly invoked to honour or worship the gods (3, 25¹; 7, 11³ &c.), while they in their turn are said to honour Agni three times a day (3, 4²). He is the accomplisher of the rite or sacrifice (3, 3³. 27²), promoting it by his occult power (3, 27⁷), making the oblations fragrant (10, 15¹²), and causing the offering which he protects to reach the gods (1, 1⁴). He is the father (3, 3⁴), the king (4, 3¹), the ruler (10, 6³), the superintendant (8, 43²⁴), the banner (3, 3³. 10⁴; 6, 2³; 10, 15), of sacrifice. In one hymn (10, 51) it is related that Agni grew weary of the service and refused to fulfil his sacrificial offices, but on being granted the remuneration he required from the gods, continued to act as high priest of men³⁹. Agni's priesthood is the most salient feature of his character. He is in fact the great priest, as Indra is the great warrior. But though this phase of Agni's character is so prominent from the beginning to the end of the RV., it is of course from a historical point of view comparatively recent, due to those mystical sacerdotal speculations which ultimately led to the endless sacrificial symbolism of the later ritual texts. From the ordinary sacrificial Agni who conveys the offering (*havya-vah* or *-vāhana*) is distinguished the form of Fire which is called 'corpse-devouring' (*kravyād*: cp. § 71). The VS. distinguishes three forms, as the Agni who devours raw-flesh (*āmād*), the corpse-devouring or funereal, and the sacrificial Agni (VS. 1, 17, cp. 18, 51). The TS. (2, 5, 8⁶) also distinguishes three, the Agni that bears the oblation (*havyavāhana*), as belonging to the gods, the Agni that bears the funeral offering (*kavyavāhana*), as belonging to the Fathers, and the Agni associated with goblins (*saharakṣas*) as belonging to the Asuras.

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Agni is a seer (*ṛṣi*) as well as a priest (9, 66²⁰); he is kindled as an eminent seer (3, 21³); he is the most gracious seer (6, 14²); he is the first seer Aṅgiras (1, 31¹). He is the divine one (*asura*) among the sages (3, 3⁴). Agni knows the sacrifice exactly (10, 110¹¹) and knows all rites (10, 122²). Knowing the proper seasons he rectifies the mistakes which men commit through ignorance of the sacrificial ordinances of the gods (10, 2⁴. 5) He knows the recesses of heaven (4, 8². 4). He knows everything (10, 11¹) by his wisdom (10, 91³). He has all wisdom (3, 1¹⁷; 10, 21⁵), which he embraces as the felly the wheel (2, 5³) and which he acquired as soon as born (1, 96¹). He is 'all-knowing' (*viśvavid*); and the epithets 'possessed of all knowledge' (*viśvavedas*), 'sage' (*kavi*), and 'possessing the intelligence of a sage' (*kavikratu*) are predominantly applicable to him. He exclusively bears the epithet *jātavedas*, which occurs upwards of 120 times in the RV. and is there (6, 15¹³) explained as meaning 'he who knows all generations' (*viśvā veda janimā*)⁴⁰. He knows the divine ordinances and the generations of men (1, 70⁴. ³). He knows and sees all creatures (3, 55¹⁰; 10, 187⁴) and hears the invocations addressed to him (8, 43²³). Agni is also a producer of wisdom (8, 91⁸). Wisdom and prayers arise from him (4, 11³). He is an inspirer (10, 46⁵), an inventor of brilliant speech (2, 9⁴), the first inventor of prayer (6, 1¹). He is also said to be eloquent (6, 4⁴) and a singer (*jaritṛ*).

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Agni is a great benefactor of his worshippers. He protects them with a hundred iron walls (7, 3⁷. 16¹⁰, cp. 6, 48⁸; 1, 189²). He preserves them from calamities or takes them across calamities as in a ship over the sea (3, 20⁴; 5, 4⁹; 7, 12²). He is a deliverer (8, 49⁵) and a friend of the man who entertains him as a guest (4, 4¹⁰). He grants protection to the worshipper who sweats to bring him fuel (4, 2⁶). He watches with a thousand eyes the man who brings him food and nourishes him with oblations (10, 79⁵). He consumes his worshippers’ enemies like dry bushes (4, 4⁴) and strikes down the malevolent as a tree is destroyed by lightning (6, 8⁵, cp. AV. 3, 2¹ &c.). He is therefore invoked in battle (8, 43²¹), in which he leads the van (8, 73⁸). The man whom he protects and inspires in battle wins abundant food and can never be overcome (1, 27⁷). All blessings issue from him as branches from a tree (6, 13¹). He gives riches, which he abundantly commands (1, 1³. 31¹⁰. 36⁴). All treasures are collected in him (10, 6⁶) and he opens the door of riches (1, 68¹⁰). He commands all riches in heaven and earth (4, 5¹¹) or in earth, heaven, and ocean (7, 6⁷; 10, 91³). He gives rain from heaven (2, 6⁵) and is like a water-trough in the desert (10, 4¹). He is therefore constantly besought to bestow every kind of boon: food, riches, deliverance from poverty, childlessness, enemies, and demons⁴¹. The boons which Agni bestows are rather domestic welfare, offspring, and prosperity, while Indra for the most part gives power, victory, and glory. Agni also forgives sin⁴² committed through folly, makes guiltless before Aditi (4, 12⁴; 7, 93⁷, cp. p. 121), and averts Varuṇa’s wrath (4, 1⁴). He even frees from guilt committed by a man’s father and mother (AV. 5, 30⁴; TB. 3, 7, 12³·⁴)

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Agni is a divine (*asura*) monarch (*samrāj*), strong as Indra (7, 6¹). His greatness surpasses that of mighty heaven (1, 59⁵). He is greater than heaven and earth (3, 6²; 10, 88¹⁴), than all the worlds, which he filled when born (3, 3¹⁰). He is superior to all the other gods in greatness (1, 68²). All the gods fear and do homage to him when he abides in darkness (6, 9⁷). He is celebrated and worshipped by Varuṇa, Mitra, the Maruts, and all the gods (3, 9⁸. 14⁴; 10, 69⁹). Agni performed great deeds of old (7, 6²). Men tremble at his mighty deeds (8, 92⁵). In battle he procured space for the gods (1, 59⁵) and he delivered them from curse (7, 13²). He is a conqueror of thousands (*sahasrajit*: more commonly an attribute of Soma). He drives away the Dasyus from the house, thus creating a wide light for the Ārya (7, 5⁶). He is a promoter of the Ārya (8, 92¹) and a vanquisher of irreligious Paṇis (7, 6³). He receives with some frequency the epithet of ‘Vṛtra-slayer’, and two or three times that of ‘fort-destroyer’ (*puraṃdara*), attributes primarily appropriate to Indra (p. 60). Such warlike qualities, though suitable to Agni in his lightning form, are doubtless derived by him from Indra, with whom he is so frequently associated (p. 127).

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Although Agni is the son of Heaven and Earth he is nevertheless called the generator of the two worlds (1, 96⁴, cp. 7, 5⁷), his ordinance, which does not perish (2, 8³), being followed by heaven and earth (7, 5⁴). He stretched them out (3, 6⁵; 7, 5⁴) or spread them out like two skins (6, 8³). With his flame or his smoke he supported the vault of heaven (3, 5¹⁰; 4, 6²). He kept asunder the two worlds (6, 8³). He supported earth and heaven with true hymns (1, 67³). He stands at the head of the world or is the head of the earth at night (10, 88⁵·⁶), but he is also the head and summit (*kakud*) of the sky (1, 59²; 6, 7¹; 8, 44¹⁶). He measured out the air and touched the vault of heaven with his greatness (6, 8²). He measured out the aerial spaces and the bright realms of heaven (6, 7⁷). He caused the sun to ascend the sky (10, 156⁴). The notion that the kindling of Agni exercised a magical influence on the sunrise seems not to be entirely absent in the RV.⁴³. Such appears to be the meaning of the poet when he exclaims: ‘Let us light Agni, that thy wondrous brand may shine in heaven’ (5, 6⁴). This notion is clearly stated in a Brāhmaṇa passage: ‘By sacrificing before sunrise he produces him (the sun), else he would not rise’ (ŚB. 2, 3, 1⁵, cp. TS. 4, 7, 13³). Otherwise the kindling of Agni and the sunrise are represented merely as simultaneous in the RV.: ‘The sun became visible when Agni was born’ (4, 3¹¹). This trait of the Agni myth resembles the winning of the sun in the Indra myth, but the original point of view in the two cases is clearly different. Agni is further said to have adorned the sky with stars (1, 68⁵). He created all that flies, walks, stands, or moves (10, 88⁴). He placed the germ in these beings (3, 2¹⁰), in plants, in all beings, and engendered offspring in the earth and in women (10, 183³). Agni is once spoken of as having generated these children of men (1, 96²); but this is a mere incidental extension of the notion expressed in the same stanza, that he created heaven, earth, and the waters, and cannot be interpreted as a general belief in Agni as father of the human race⁴⁴. Finally, Agni is the guardian (7, 7⁴) and lord (7, 4⁶) of immortality, which he confers on mortal men (1, 31⁷).

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Though *agni* is an Indo-European word (Lat. *igni-s*, Slavonic *ogni*), the worship of fire under this name is purely Indian. In the Indo-Iranian period the sacrificial fire is already found as the centre of a developed ritual, tended by a priestly class probably called Atharvan; personified and worshipped as a strong, pure, wise god, giver of food, offspring, intellectual power, fame; friendly to the house, but a destroyer of foes; probably even thought of as having different forms like lightning or the fire produced from wood⁴⁵. The sacrificial fire seems to have been an Indo-European institution also⁴⁶, since the Italians and Greeks, as well as the Iranians and Indians had the custom of offering gifts to the gods in fire. But the personification of this fire, if it then existed, must have been extremely shadowy⁴⁷.

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The word *ag-ni* may possibly be derived from the root which in Sanskrit appears as *aj*⁴⁸, to drive (*ájāmi*, Lat. *ago*, Gk. ἄγω), meaning ‘nimble’, with reference to the agility of the element.

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Besides epithets of celestial fire which, like Apāṁ napāt, have become separate names, some epithets of Agni exhibit a semi-independent character. The epithet Vaiśvānara⁴⁹, occurring about sixty times in the RV. and with two exceptions restricted to Agni, is, apart from some five detached verses, to be found in fourteen hymns of the RV., in nearly all of which, according to the native tradition of the Anukramaṇī, Agni Vaiśvānara is the deity addressed. The attribute is never in the RV. unaccompanied by the name of Agni. It means ‘belonging to all men’ and seems to designate ‘Universal Agni’, fire in all its aspects, celestial as well as terrestrial. Thus the hymns addressed to this form of Agni sometimes refer to the myth of Mātariśvan and the Bhṛgus, which is connected with the descent of celestial fire to earth (3, 2⁴; 6, 8⁴), and Agni Vaiśvānara is once even directly styled Mātariśvan (3, 26²). In the Naighaṇṭuka (5, 1) Vaiśvānara is given as one of the names of Agni. Yāska in commenting on the epithet states (Nir. 7, 23), that ancient ritualists (*yājñikāḥ*) took Agni Vaiśvānara to be the sun, while Śākapūṇi considered him to be this Agni⁵⁰. Later on (Nir. 7, 31), he states as his own opinion that the Agni Vaiśvānara who receives praise and sacrifice is this (i. e. terrestrial) Agni, while the two higher (*uttare*) lights (i. e. the aerial and the celestial) only occasionally share this designation. In the ritual texts Vaiśvānara is distinguished as a special form of Agni (ĀŚS. 1, 3²³; KŚS. 23, 3¹; (PB. 21, 10¹¹; ŚB. 1, 5, 1¹⁶).

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The epithet Tanūnapāt, generally unaccompanied by the name of Agni, occurs eight times in the RV. and, with two exceptions (3, 29¹¹; 10, 92²) always in the second verse of the Āprī hymns, which are liturgical invitations introducing the animal sacrifice and in which fire under various names and forms is invoked⁵¹. The word occurs as an independent name in the Naighaṇṭuka (5, 2). The explanations given by Yāska (Nir. 8, 5) are artificial and improbable⁵². It seems to mean 'son of himself', as spontaneously generated in wood and cloud. According to Bergaigne's interpretation, it signifies 'the bodily (i. e. own) son' of the divine father⁵³. Tanūnapāt as contrasted with Mātariśvan and Narāśaṃsa is said to be 'the divine (*āsura*) embryo' (3, 29¹¹). The dawns are said to kiss Agni 'the domestic priest, the Tanūnapāt of the ruddy one' (10, 92², cp. 5, 58⁹). Tanūnapāt is beautiful-tongued (10, 110²). He is besought to take the sacrifice to the gods (1, 13²; 10, 110²); he distributes the sacrifice rich in ghee and mead (1, 142², cp. 188²). The gods honour him three times a day, Varuṇa, Mitra, Agni, every day (3, 4²). Hillebrandt⁵⁴ (comparing 9, 5²) identifies Agni Tanūnapāt with Agni Somagopā or the lunar Fire, which he assumes to be a special form of Agni⁵⁵.

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⁹ Jolly in this Encyclopaedia II, 8, p. 25.

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The somewhat more frequent epithet Narāśaṃsa which is given as an independent appellation in the Naighaṇṭuka (5, 3) and is unaccompanied by the name of Agni in the RV., is not restricted to Agni, being twice connected with Pūṣan (1, 106⁴; 10, 64³)⁵⁶. It has the third verse as its fixed place in the Āprī hymns and the second in those which are technically called Āpra. Narāśaṃsa is 'four-limbed' (10, 92¹¹) and is the 'lord of a celestial wife (*gnāspati*: 2, 38¹⁰). With honey on his tongue and in his hand, he performs the sacrifice (1, 13³; 5, 5²). Three times a day he besprinkles the sacrifice with honey (1, 142³). He anoints the three heavens and the gods (2, 3²). He comes at the head of the gods and makes the sacrifice pleasant for them (10, 70²). Through his sacrifices worshippers praise the greatness of the gods (7, 2²). Soma is said to go between Narāśaṃsa and the celestial (*daivya*) one (9, 86⁴²), which seems to mean, between the terrestrial and the celestial Agni. As contrasted with Tanūnapāt and Mātariśvan, Agni is called Narāśaṃsa when he is born (3, 29¹¹). In one hymn to Bṛhaspati (10, 182²) Narāśaṃsa is invoked for protection, and in another he is spoken of as the sacrificer of the seat of heaven (1, 189). He thus seems in these two passages to be identified with Bṛhaspati. The word *nárā-śáṃsa* is apparently an improper compound (in which the *m* of the genitive plural has disappeared), having a double accent and having its parts separated by particles in two passages (9, 86⁴²; 10, 64³). As the expressions *narā́ṃ śáṃsa* and *devā́nāṃ śáṃsa* occur (2, 34⁶; 1, 141¹¹) and a poet once calls Agni *śaṃsam āyoḥ*, 'Praise of Āyu' (4, 6¹¹), Narāśaṃsa appears to mean 'Praise of men' in the sense of 'he who is the object of men's praise'. Bergaigne expresses the opinion⁵⁷ that the exact aspect of Agni represented by Narāśaṃsa, is that of a god of human prayer, like a second Bṛhaspati.

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¹ Muṇḍ. Up. 1, 24; cp. ZDMG. 35, 552.

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² Cp. Oldenberg, ZDMG. 50, 425—6; SBE. 46, 159. 207.

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³ ORV. 104; SBE. 46, 128.

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⁴ Cp. BRV. 1, 143; SBE. 46, 144.

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⁵ BDA. 50—1; Oldenberg, ZDMG. 39, 69.

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⁶ Schwab, Das altindische Tieropfer 77—8; Roth, Indisches Feuerzeug, ZDMG. 43, 590—5.

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⁷ BRV. 2, 52; PVS. 2, 50.

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⁸ Roth, Nirukta, Erl. 120; PW. s. v. *yuvatī* and *tvaṣṭṛ*; OO. 2, 510.

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¹⁰ KHF. ed. Schrader (1889) 37—9; cp. ZDMG. 35, 561.

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¹¹ KHF. 18; KRV. note 121; HRI. 107.

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¹² Roth, ZDMG. 43, 593; ORV. 121.

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¹³ Cp. HVM. 1, 179 note 4.

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¹⁴ Haug, AB. 2, p. 62.

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¹⁵ Oldenberg, ZDMG. 39, 68—72; Macdonell, JRAS. 26, 16 ff.

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¹⁶ LRV. 5, 504.

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¹⁷ ORV. 115.

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¹⁸ Cp. GVS. 1, 157—70.

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¹⁹ ORV. 113 note 2.

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²⁰ Ibid. 112.

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²¹ Other passages are 3, 144; 8, 565; 10, 88 11. 12; AV. 13, 1 13; TS. 4, 2, 94.

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²² OST. 5, 206; BRV. 1, 21—5; Macdonell, JRAS. 25, 468—70; ORV. 106; SBE. 46, 231.

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²³ Cp. HRI. 105.

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²⁴ See GW. s. v.

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²⁵ LRV. 3, 356; BRV. 1, 23.

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²⁶ ORV. 348.

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²⁷ Cp. ŚB. 2, 1 and Eggeling, SBE. 12, 274 ff.

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²⁸ HRI. 106; cp. LRV. 3, 356.

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²⁹ BRV. 1, 23; LRV. 3, 355; Oldenberg, SBE. 30, x, note 1; 46, 362; ORV. 348.

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³⁰ BRV. 1, 103.

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³¹ LRV. 5, 504—5.

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³² Cp. Sāyaṇa; Roth, Nirukta, Erl. 140; MM., LSL. 2, 614.

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³³ Cp. BRV. 3, 134 f.

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³⁴ BRV. 2, 217.

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³⁵ ORV. 128.

c5.s3.t2.81

³⁶ SBE. 46, 361. 37 ORV. 132—3. — 38 OST. 1, 348—9; cp. SBE. 46, 123. 211. — 39 Macdonell, JRAS. 26, 12—22. — 40 Whitney, AJP. 3, 409; otherwise PVS. 1, 94 and Bloomfield, JAOS. 16, 16. — 41 OST. 5, 218. — 42 Cp. ORV. 299—300. — 43 Cp. BRV. 1, 140 ff.; ORV. 109; SBE. 46, 330. — 44 The view of KHF. 69 ff. — 45 ORV. 103. — 46 Knauer, FaR. 64. — 47 ORV. 102. — 48 PW.; MM.PhR. 117 (cp. Kirste, WZKM. 7, 97); rejected by Bartholomae, IF. 5, 222. — 49 BRV. 153—6. — 50 Roth, Nir. Erl. 7, 19. — 51 Roth, Nirukta, Introd. 36 f.; Erl. 117—8. 121—4; MM.ASL. 463—6; Weber, IS. 10, 89—95; GRV. 1, 6. — 52 Roth, Nir. Erl. 117; cp. Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 10. — 53 BRV. 2, 99 f. — 54 HVM. 1, 339. — 55 Ibid. 330—6. — 56 Roth, Erl. 117 f.; cp. Sp.AP. 209 f. — 57 BRV. 1, 305—8. KHF. 1—105; Whitney, JAOS. 3, 317—8; OST. 199—220; LRV. 3, 324—5; KRV. 35—7; BRV. 1, 11—31. 38—45. 70—4. 100—1. 139—45; BRI. 9—11; Sp.AP. 147—53; v. Schroeder, KZ. 29, 193 ff. (cp. BB. 19, 230); WZKM. 225—30; MM.PhR. 144—203. 252—302; HVBP. 63—8; ORV. 102—33; HRI. 105—12.

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