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Studies in the Origins of Buddhism c19.s1: The Purpose of Jhana.

Studies in the Origins of Buddhism c19.s1

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The Purpose of Jhana.

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In some form Jhānic practice was already current in the times of Buddha.¹²⁰ It was essentially a method of mental discipline which could be utilized for a diversity of purposes—for attaining to this or that divine world,¹²¹ for the sake of supernormal powers,¹²² for the sake of enjoyable experience,¹²³ for communion with the true self or the inner reality.¹²⁴ In the case of Buddha it served as a footstep to the realization of higher learning (Vijjā) culminating in Bodhi.¹²⁵ And this is the sense in which Jhāna is advocated in many Nikāya texts.¹²⁶

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¹²⁰ In the Kaṭh, Muṇḍ and Śvet. Upaniṣads there are clear references to "Jhānic" practice. In the Br. Up. the Ātman is called "Nididhyāsitavya". The Jhānas are mentioned in connection with heretic belief and practice in the Brahmajāla° (DN) and Sallekha Sutta (MN).

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¹²¹ MN. II. 37; AN. II. 184. It is interesting to note that in this context the word used in MN. s. 16 is "Paṇidhāna" (MN. I. 103—"Aññātaraṃ devanikāyaṃ paṇidhāya brahmacariyaṃ carati"), cf. "Dvidvidhaṃ dhyānaṃ Bhāvanā praṇidhānañca tatrāḍyaṃ siddhaṃ kalpitaṃ vā viṣayamadhikṛtya pravartate na vastutattvamavaśyamapekṣate Praṇidhānaṃ Vastutattvaviṣayam......" (Nilakaṇṭha on Mbh. ŚP. 195-15). Such a distinction between Bhāvanā and Praṇidhāna is not to be found in the Nikāyas.

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¹²² DN. I. Mahāli.° From Buddhaghosa's treatment of Adhiṭṭhānā Iddhis (Vm. loc. cit.) it is clear that Adhiṭṭhāna (resolve) was effective in this wise only if coupled with Jhāna. In the Y. S. also a class of Iddhis originate in "Samyama". Such attainments are clearly the powers of the mind which has been purified through Jhāna. On the power of mind vide Buddha's remark in the Upāli°—(MN) that forests like Daṇḍakāraṇya may be reduced to ashes by the power of the mind.

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¹²³ Diṭṭhadhammanibbāna (DN. Pt. I. Nāg. ed. p. 44f); Diṭṭhadhamma Sukhavihāra— (MN. I. 40-41). According to AN. II. 44-45 Samādhibhāvanā may be practised for "diṭṭhadhamma sukhavihāra", "ñāṇadassanapaṭilābha", "sati-sampajañña" and for "Āsavakkhaya"; in the first case alone are the 4 Jhānas spoken of.

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¹²⁴ This is the purpose in the Upaniṣadic texts. See above. [^125], [^126]: See the texts quoted and ref. to in connection with Sambodhi in the Chap. on Nirvāṇa.

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Jhāna was valued because it led to Aññā. Normally the citta is covered over with impurities, is distracted and unsteady. Jhāna serves a cathartic function. It renders the citta pure and receptive which sets the stage for the on-come of illumination.¹²⁷

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¹²⁷ The Jhānas are described as "Cittasampadā" in DN. pt. I. p. 200ff (Nāg. ed.), as "Cittaparisuddhiyaṅga" in AN. II. 195. cf. AN. III. 93. Their function was to free the mind from its "impurities (Upakkilesas) which are variously described and listed. Sometimes they are the "Nivaraṇas"—"cittaṃ imehi pañca upakkilesehi vimuttaṃ....mudu ca kamanīyaṃ ca pabhasaraṃ ca na ca pabbaṅgu sammā samādhiyati āsavānaṃ khayāya...." (AN. III. pp. 16-17) The simile of the purification of gold is used in this connection (AN. I. 253, 257) Cf. AN. III. 186, "cetaso vivaraṃ cetaso pasādaṃ" Ib. 323 "iti vivaṭena cetasā apariyonaddhena sappabhāsaṃ cittaṃ bhāveti. "SN. V. 92 is similar to AN. I. III. 15-6. On the psychological conditions of the origin of the Nivaraṇas see AN. I. 3-4—Sometimes a long list of the Upakkilesas is given as in MN. I. 36. Frequently the basic impurities that have to be destroyed are called the Āsavas. The term occurs in early Jinist literature (in the sense of "flowing in" rather than of "what flows in" which is the Buddhist meaning). This suggests the age of the term, as does also the fact that it is used in early texts in connection with Cetovimuti. At first three, the Āsavas were later increased to four (see Pali Dictionary, PTS). Sometimes the origin of Avijjā was sought in them (see Vm. p. 368;

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The Four Jhanas.—If we seek to inquire into the precise content of Jhāna, we find ourselves invariably faced with a neat systematic analysis of the progressive simplification of mental processes and content of the Jhāyin, which culminates in a state of entire recollectedness, a state of lucid and one-pointed awareness possessing hedonically a neutral tone.¹²⁸ This analysis may

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¹²⁸ "Athāparā upekkhā yeva avasissati parisuddhā pariyodātā mudu ca kammaññā ca pabhassarā ca".

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cf. MN. I. 55). It was necessary to "cleanse" the mind from them (pariyodapana—MN. pt. I. p. 9. Nāg ed;. Ib. 10. cittaṃ parisodheti). The second sutta of the MN. explains in detail the various ways to be adopted in fighting them. "Bhāvanā" is one of the ways (Bhāvanā is here equivalent to the Sambojjhaṅgas); on the Āsavas cf. Itv. s. 56–57.

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(MN. III. 243) cf. "it was a state of attention, more akin to that of the boy Samuel in the Herbrew scriptures; 'speak, lord, for thy servant heareth.' "It was an attitude for coming to know (Sakya. p. 37)" "What is stated to be left is sati coupled with emotional indifference (Upekkhā). Now sati was just lucid, introspective awareness, the very state needed by the listner who is purged of preconceptions, has made his mind a tabula rasa and is waiting to learn" (Ib. 166). On the "simplification" of psychic process and contents cf. Laignel Lavastine. op. cit. pp. 98–99.

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In the first Jhāna, the subject is freed from Kāma and the Akusala dhammas though in possession of thought and a pleasant feeling (vivicceva kāmehi vivicca akusalehi dhammehi savitakkaṃ savicāraṃ vivekajaṃ pītisukhaṃ paṭhamajhānaṃ upasampajja viharati").

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Vitakka and Vicāra are in later literature at least distinguished as initial and sustained applications of thought. Cf. Vm. p. 95. Buddhaghosa distinguishes five types of Pīti and seeks to indicate the precise relation between Pīti and Sukha—Ib. 96-97.

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In the second Jhāna, "Bhikkhu vitakkavicārānaṃ vūpasamā ajjhattaṃ sampasādanaṃ cetaso ekodibhāvaṃ avitakkaṃ avicāraṃ samādhijjaṃ pītisukhaṃ dutiyajjhānaṃ upasampajja viharati". Sukha is now samādhija not vivekaja (DN. Pt. I. p. 85. Nāg. ed.).

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In the third "Bhikkhu pītiyā ca Virāgā ca upekkhako viharati sato ca sampajāno sukhañca kāyena paṭisaṃvedeti yaṃ taṃ ariyā ācikkhanti upekkhako satimā sukhavihārīti tatiyajjhānaṃ upasampajja viharati". Pīti disappears here as "thought" had in the second jhāna.

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not be very early, but then we are entirely in the dark about what may have been the ideas relating to Jhāna earlier.¹²⁹

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¹²⁹ Sn. Udayamāṇavapucchā—vv. 2-3 seem to describe the state of the fourth Jhāna but are not identical with the usual formula.

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The four Jhānas are apparently referred to in the Mbh. Śānti Parvan¹³⁰ and a somewhat similar division is to be discovered in the Yoga sūtras¹³¹ and later Jaina works.¹³² In the Abhidhamma-stage the four Jhānas were turned, for the sake of greater system, into a five-fold.¹³³ A detailed and remarkably clear account of the Jhānas is given by Buddhaghosa in his Visuddhimaggo.¹³⁴

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¹³⁰ Adhy. 195. Here it is promised to describe the “fourfold dhyānayoga” (Dhyānayogaṃ caturvidham) through which the Yogins reach “Nirvāṇa”.

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¹³¹ YS. I. 17: Vitarkavicārānandāsmitārūpānugmāt Saṃprajñātaḥ”.

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¹³² Tattvārthādhigama, IX. 27ff.

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¹³³ Dhs. pp. 48-51.

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¹³⁴ Dr. N. Dutt follows it in detail in his Early Monastic Buddhism I. p. 212f.

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In the fourth “sukhassa ca pahānā dukkhassa ca pahānā pubbēva somanassadomanassānaṃ atthaṅgamā adukkhaṃ asukhaṃ upekkhāsatiparisuddhiṃ catutthajjhānaṃ upasampajja viharati”. Sukha also disappears. According to SN. IV. 225-8 Sukha increases through all the Jhānas and even the Āruppas. Sukha is here apparently used in a peculiar sense. Only lucid mindfulness (Parisuddhā sati) remains; the Bhikkhu is now just pure mind (so imameva kāyaṃ parisuddhena cetasā pariyodātena pharitvā nisinno hoti, nāssa kiñci sabbāvato kāyassa parisuddhena cetasā pariyodātena apphuṭaṃ hoti—op. cit. p. 86). The citta is now concentrated, clear, pure, pliant, efficient and motionless (Evaṃ samāhite citte parisuddhe pariyodāte anaṅgaṇe vigatūpakkilese mudubhūte kammaniye ṭhite āneñjappatte....” Ib. 87, MN. I. 22).

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The stillness of the citta (Āneñja) in the 4th Jhāna is referred to more than once—AN. III. 98. 100; MN. III. 111-112; (according to the Vijñānavādins the Asaṃskṛta dharma called “Acala” was attained in the 4th Jhāna—Upādhyāya. op. cit. p. 292). Contra—AN. II. 184 where the attainment of Āneñja is referred to the Nevasaññānāsaññāyatanaṃ; AN. III. 377-8 calls the Khīṇāsava “Āneñjapatta”; MN. 106 describes a whole series of Āṇañjas!

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The Nature of Jhanas.—Jhānic practice, it is apparent, does not aim at producing a state of auto-suggested hypnosis or of coma.¹³⁵ Vitality in the sense of mental energy and lucidity is not lowered but enhanced. On the other hand, Jhāna, as has been pointed out, is not “meditation”.¹³⁶ A suspension of “thought” as of ‘feeling’ was of its essence.¹³⁷ What resulted was not a state akin to sleep or coma, but rather of the mind stilled or hushed before leaping into a far-reaching intuition. The theory was that in the depth of the still and even consciousness reality mirrored itself as in unruffled waters.¹³⁸ Transcendental knowledge (Paññā)¹³⁹ was not the result of the discursive efforts of the mind; it revealed itself spontaneously.

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¹³⁵ Rhys Davids, Pali Dictionary (P.T.S.); Thomas—Hist. of Buddh. Thought. p. 74fn.; Cf. JPTS—1906-’7 (Suzuki)—p. 36; Stcherbatsky, Nirvāṇa p. 8f.

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¹³⁶ Sakya p. 166.

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¹³⁷ Of Vitakka—Vicāra, Sukha—Dukkha, Somanassa—Domanassa, & Piti—see the Jhāna formulae. Bhagavadgītā (VI. 24-25) sums up the technique of Yoga which culminates in “not thinking” (Na Kiñcidapi cintayet). On this Śaṅkara says “Eṣa Yogasya paramo vidhiḥ.”

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¹³⁸ SN. IV. 143, 144—“Samādhim bhāvetha. Samāhitassa bhikkhuno yathābhūtamokkhāyatīti; “Ib. 144-5. as above, Paṭisallāna for Samādhi; SN. IV. 79 “Samāhite citte dhammā pātubhavanti”; SN. V. 414—“Samādhim bhāvetha...Samāhito yathābhūtam pajānāti” AN. III. 230-’33: when under the influence of the Nīvaraṇas (the citta is like disturbed water in which nothing can be seen as it is (yathābhūtam); after Āsavakkhaya the Citta is like a clear pool (Sāmaññaphala 82 Nag. ed) Cf. AN. Nip. I. vg. 5; the slightest “dust” must be removed from the Citta as from a mirror (AN. V. 12) cf. the treatment of Vijñāna-vāda origins in the Chap. on Nirvāṇa. The likening of Citta to a mirror which when pure reflects all knowledge is found in other systems of thought also Cf. JPTS. 1906-’7 pp. 40-41.

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¹³⁹ See chap. on Nirvāṇa; Thomas—Life. p. 186; cf. JPTS 1906-’7 p. 28f.

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Jhanas, Aruppas and Nirvana.—Frequently, however, the Jhanas are treated as coordinate to the Āruppas.¹⁴⁰ The four Jhānic levels here belong entirely to the Rūpa-world. "Jhāna" thus ceases to be a way to Nirvāṇa since the latter is beyond both Rūpa and Arūpa.¹⁴¹ However, some texts would equate Nirvāṇic

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¹⁴⁰ Which is the usual treatment in the Abhidhamma (vide Sakya pp. 168-'69), in the last Nipātas of the AN., and in many suttas of the MN. The four Jhānas correspond to the Rūpa-worlds, after which come the four Āruppas corresponding to the Arūpa worlds. The latter can only follow the former, and within them each succeeding stage is realizable only in correlation to the preceding. This is the result of increasing abstraction, till at last perception (Saññā) is so subtle as to be unnoticeable. While the Jhānas are described as Diṭṭhadhammasukhavihāra, the Āruppas are called Santavihāras (MN. S. 8). At one place it is stated that the Jhānas are Abhicetasika, while "Ye te santā vimokkhā atikkamma rūpe āruppā te kāyena phassitvā (vihareyyanti)" (MN. s. 6). This is curious. The non-material realms should have been the less accessible bodily.

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¹⁴¹ Cf. AN. III. 393-8. While Heiler considers the 4th Jhāna the immediate threshold of full deliverance, Keith and Mrs. Rhys Davids are inclined to disagree (B. P. 126-127; Sakya, 167f). Heiler appears to be right for the earlier stratum of texts, since these show the enlightenment of Buddha as following on the 4th Jhāna. The Sāmaññaphalasutta has a similar implication. It may also be noted that Buddha is in D. s. 16 made to enter the Parinibbāna, not in the Saññāvedayitanirodha, but in the 4th Jhāna. Philosophically too, the 4th Jhāna seems to be nearest the state of mind in which Enlightenment might be expected. Mrs. Rhys Davids herself admits as much indirectly. It may be remembered that according to Zen Buddhism, it is in the "balanced" and "dustless" mind that Mahāprajñāpāramitā is revealed (see Suzuki—JPTS—1906-'7).

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Qn the other hand, Mrs. Rhys Davids has shown that Heiler's opinion is not true in an unqualified manner for a considerable part of the canon, (loc. cit.) esp. the third Piṭaka. What these references show as a matter of fact, is that Jhāna could be about 'worldly' as well as transmundane subjects (lokiya & lokuttara; thus "Tīsu bhūmisu kusalacittekaggatā lokiyo samādhi, ariyamaggasampayuttā ekaggatā lokuttaro samādhi"; Vm. p. 58. The latter is equivalent to the cultivation of Paññā: Paññāya hi bhāvitāya so bhāvito hoti—Ib. p. 60). The practice of Jhāna has in this respect a correspondence to the practice of "Samyama" in the Yoga system. Jhāna led to full deliverance only if undertaken with that purpose and acexperience to Nirodhasamāpatti¹⁴² for which Jhāna was at least necessary.¹⁴³ On the other hand, the description of “Nirodha-samāpatti” comes nearer that of catalepsy than of Sambodhi.¹⁴⁴

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¹⁴² “Saññāvedayitanirodham upasampajja viharati paññāya ca’ssa disvā āsavā parikkhīṇā honti” (MN. I. 160, 175, 204, 209; MN. III. 28). Āsavakkhaya follows Nevasaññānāsaññāyatana when one realizes the impermanence and conditionedness of the Animitto cetosamadhi which succeeds it (MN. III. 107-’8). Nirvāṇa follows the “Nevasaññā°” (MN. III. 244). An Asappurisa can go up to Nevasaññā° but not higher (which would seem to refer to the Nirodha°)—MN. III. 44; cf. DN. 9.

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¹⁴³ Samatha and Vipassanā are both necessary for it (SN. IV. 294; Vm.). It can be realized only after the highest Āruppa.

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¹⁴⁴ MN. I. 296; SN. IV. 294; Vm. pp. 503-4. Cf. MN. I. 383, where a Bhikkhu in Saññāved° is mistaken for dead. The refs. from MN (supra) show that Saññāved°, was not regarded as incompatible with Paññā. According to SN. IV. 295 knowledge comes when the mind falls back (Vuṭṭhāna) from the Nirodhasam°. This is quite opposed to the MN. refs. DN. 9 (DN. pt. I. p. 214—Nāg. ed.) speaks of “Anupubbābhisaññā-nirodhasampajānasamāpatti”.

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