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The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies v7.c63: Mahāvibhāṣā

The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies v7.c63

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English

Contents

Mahāvibhāṣā

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*Summary by Shohei Ichimura with* *Kosho Kawamura, Robert E. Buswell, Jr.* *and Collett Cox*

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This summary is based on the following materials:
(1) Ryogen Fukuhara’s Japanese itemization of the subjects treated in the *Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣāśāstra*, selectively rendered by Shohei Ichimura into English; (2) translations of selected passages from Louis de la Vallée Poussin’s French, and by Robert Buswell and Collett Cox into English; (3) a partial summary of the opening portion by Kosho Kawamura. The work is available in Chinese translations, numbered as T.1545, T.1546 and T.1547. The present version is based on Taisho 1545. Some of the passages provided further treatment on the basis of the translations of Poussin, Buswell and Cox are culled from versions other than T. 1545. However, since the work is, in each of its versions, a commentary on the *Jñānaprasthāna*, it is possible for us to follow the overall plan of that work in organizing this summary. Nonparenthetical numerical references connect the summary to the sections in the summary of the *Jñānaprasthāna*. The numbers in parentheses refer first to the page and column in the Chinese text.

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T.1545 (Nanjio 1264) was composed shortly after Kaniṣka’s council, which according to Etienne Lamotte took place around 128-151.¹ The Chinese translation by Hsüan-tsang, made in 659, numbers 200 volumes. Hajime Nakamura tells us that “it is likely that the fourth congress, in which it is said that this text was compiled, did not actually take place”.²

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T.1546 (Nanjio 1263) was written by Buddhavarman in 439,³ in 60 volumes. It seems to be an earlier form of T.1545.⁴

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T.1547 (Nanjio 1299) is “attributed to Saṅghabhadra, and most probably revised by Saṅghadeva”⁵ in 383.⁶ It seems to be an independent work.⁷

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Louis de la Vallée Poussin provides French translations of sections of these texts in several of his articles: "The two nirvāṇadhātus according to the Vibhāṣā", Indian Historical Quarterly 6, 1930, 39-45 concerns the pratisamkhyā- and aprati-saṃkhyā-nirodhas. Other passages are rendered in his Documents d' Abhidharma, Bulletin de l'École Francaise d'Extrème-Orient 1930, 1-28, 247-298, Mélanges Chinois et Bouddhique 1, 1932, 63-125, and 5, 1936-37, 1-87. There are also some passages translated in various volumes of Poussin's translation of Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośa, op. cit.

Book One: Miscellaneous Topics

Chapter One: Higher Worldly Factors

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(1.1a-4c) Different opinions are recorded about what the Jñānaprasthāna represents. One master believes that it constitutes the Buddha's answers to questions addressed to him. Another believes it is a treatise composed by Kātyāyanīputra.

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There is a discussion of the meaning of "abhidharma". It is held to mean "extreme", i.e. higher dharma. The essential nature of abhidharma is said to be the pure faculty of wisdom. Various theories are also cited and identified as those of various masters, specifically the views of Vasumitra, Bhadanta Kātyāyanīputra, Ghoṣaka, Buddhagupta, Buddhadeva, and members of the Dharmaguptaka, Mahīśāsaka, Dārṣṭāntika and Śābdika sects are mentioned.

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In connection with the notion of intoxicant, it is remarked that the real intoxicants are greed, hatred and delusion, so that e.g. woman, though perhaps a cause of impurities blocking the practice of spiritual training, is not an actual evil influence. The power of karma is illustrated: an alms-offering, even a single meal, can be a cause that matures into seven rebirths among men and gods.

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"Higher worldly factor" is defined as that which leads to the certainty of liberation.

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(2.5c-9b) Various theories are cited as to why the Jñānaprasthāna begins by presenting the higher worldly factors and not others. The "earlier Abhidharmists" say that the higher worldly factors are states into which one enters by making the five faculties (of faith, etc.) a directly antecedent condition of the realization of enlightenment.

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The Vibhajyavādins say that the five faculties are simply of the nature of nonattachment, and not the higher worldly factors.

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The Vātsīputrīya school agrees for the most part, but adds that the higher worldly factors are still influenced evilly by a contaminant neither mental nor material, rather being of the category of dissociated conditioning factor. They add peculiar views of the school, such as that there are three different types of seeker, that asuras belong to the sixth course rather than the third as usually supposed, and that personality actually exists.

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Dharmatrāta: Awarenesses and mental factors are differentiated by will, and so the higher worldly factors have will as their essential nature.

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Buddhadeva: Since the essential nature of awareness and mental factors is awareness, that is also the essential nature of the higher worldly factors.

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Though patience in awareness of frustration occurs for one who abides in the higher worldly factors, since patience toward knowledge of the factor of frustration has not yet been gained, such a one is not yet termed "noble" (ārya).

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Different views are considered concerning how the factors immediately precede entry into the realization that one is destined for enlightenment. One position is held by those who distinguish will from awareness, another by those who believe they are homogeneous and continuous.

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1.1 (3.10c-15b) Question: Is acquisition-force one of the higher worldly factors? The approved answer given is no, that the four characteristics of conditioned factors (arising, maintenance, decay and dissolution) are marks of higher worldly factors, but not acquisition-force.

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Part One: The Higher Worldly Factors

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1.2. Now the passage in Jñānaprasthāna, which defines the higher worldly factors as those five faculties which immediately precede entry into the realization that one is destined for liberation, is examined. This realization occurs at the stage where the ordinary man leaves his worldly nature, and it is caused by his ordinariness, just as one mounts a horse in order to tame it. This ordinary nature is neutral with respect to defilement, though the defilements operate when that nature is present.

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Other theories are reviewed. Some "nonorthodox masters" say that ordinary folk can be divided into three groups as (1) those whose nature makes them able to realize liberation, (2) those whose nature makes them unable to realize liberation, and (3) a neutral kind of nature. In contrast to this, the Dārṣṭāntika and Śābdika thinkers say that the term "destined" (in the phrase "destined to realize liberation") means that liberation is guaranteed.

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1.3. The Mahāsāmghikas say that the higher worldly factors share their nature with factors clinging to the realms of desire and matter, while the Vātsīputrīyas believe these natures belong to the material and immaterial realms. The Mahīśāsakas say that they belong to all three. The Dharmaguptakas say they share their nature with factors belonging to the sensuous, material and immaterial realms as well as with factors that do not belong to any of those. But the correct view is that the higher worldly factors share their nature only with those factors belonging to the realm of matter.

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There are two ways to counteract defilements, one direct, the other indirect. Both exist at the stage of the nonreturner. At the stage of the five upper meditational states of the sensuous realm the direct way, annihilation of defilements, is absent, but the indirect way, which magnifies aversion against defilements, is present. So these are the higher worldly factors. Thus the higher worldly factors do not cut off the defilements, but the steadiness of knowledge about frustration does.

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(4.15c-19c) The higher worldly factors do not belong to the immaterial realm. After full understanding of the frustrations inherent in the realm of desire one proceeds to comprehend the frustrations inherent in the material and immaterial realms.

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There are two kinds of ways of presenting arguments, expedient and fundamental. And likewise there are two ways of carrying on an argument, through affirmation and negation.

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1.4. The higher worldly factors and the steadiness of knowledge about frustration both have the same subject-matter. The higher worldly factors are present at three levels of meditation: one associated with initial and sustained thought, a second associated with sustained but without initial thought, and a third without either.

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When one enters into the path of vision from the sixth stage and so refines conventional knowledge concerning both worldly and otherworldly objects, he departs from the stage of the higher worldly factors. The awarenesses involved in those factors are confined to the realm of material form, while in the path of vision one becomes aware of other kinds of objects.

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1.6 (5.20b-25a) A higher worldly factor lasts for only a single moment.

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Question: Are higher worldly factors subject to retrogression? Answer: No. Neither is the path of vision. That path is approached in two ways, by steadily facing it or by suddenly encountering it.

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Part Two: Summit

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An aid to penetration may be one of three kinds: (1) disadvantageous, (2) conducive to maintenance, (3) advantageous. These three kinds of penetration or applications of mindfulness are found respectively in the stages of being (1) near to the "heat" of insight, of being (2) at the summit of faith, and of being (3) at the stage of patience for the nonarising of factors. The fourth application of mindfulness is a higher worldly factor. These three kinds of aids to penetration must be distinguished from the four kinds of features discussed in the section on concentration. These three are (1) being near to the "heat" of insight (uṣmagata), (2) being at the summit of faith, and (3) being at the stage of steadiness in the nonarising of factors. Steadiness is the state of mind of one who is contemplative, involving only the material realm, and it comes to involve all four of the applications of mindfulness, at which point it becomes the path of vision. Indeed, the path of vision is itself a good root, the good root of pure influence.

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(6.25c-30b) The summit involves a small amount of faith in the three jewels. It is called 'summit' since one cannot remain there long. After one achieves it, one either proceeds to stage (3) or retrogresses to stage (1). One cannot regress from steadiness or from the higher worldly factors. The faith achieved at the summit is the least degree of faith.

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Faith has two aspects: faith and resolve. Both are required for the noble truths of cessation and path, while only the former is needed for the truth of frustration and origin. The dharma-follower and the dharma-follower have faith in both these senses, while one who practices according to his own resolve and one who practices following wrong views have only faith as acceptance. Likewise, he who realizes liberation at no specific time, and the enlightened for oneself, have only faith as acceptance but not with active resolution, while the one who realizes liberation at an appointed time as well as the disciple have faith in both senses.

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The Buddha taught the virtue of faith as essential to the climax of penetration for the sake of those who are endowed with wisdom but lack faith.

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Those who lack faith fall away from the summit. Objection: This falling away from the summit is merely nominal and has no real essence. Answer: No. Falling away from the summit is one of several dissociated factors, an unobstructed neutral factor.

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The Dārṣṭāntikas are cited as not believing in retrogression from the summit of penetration.

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Why is the first aid to penetration called "heat"? Because it burns all the fuel of the defilements. What does it involve? Being only the first, it involves only a little faith. Evil men lack any heat.

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The four good roots are (1-3) of the aid to penetration plus the higher worldly factors as a fourth. They all involve penetration into the five aggregates as their essence.

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Ghoṣaka: The four good roots are possessed in the sensuous realm and in the material realm.

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Our view: The four good roots are only found in the realm of matter.

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Ghoṣaka, Buddhadeva and Vasumitra have different analyses of the qualities found in each of the four good roots, and indeed there are innumerable kinds of analyses.

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Why are the aids to penetration so called? Because they aid in penetration of the noble path leading to the path of insight.

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(7.30c-35c) The "venerable ones from the western region" (i.e., the Gandharans and Bactrians) are said to have analyzed the aids to penetration in terms of seventeen aspects. In the case of heat these are (1) heat's purport—all the good roots previously accumulated, (2) its locus in meditation, (3) its cause—good roots, (4) its supporting object, the four noble truths, (5) its result, immediate fruition, (6) its outcome, subsequent good roots, (7) its maturation in the five aggregates of the material realm, (8) its principal quality, to serve as the determinate cause of liberation, (9) its sixteen aspects, (10) its fruition as both name and purpose, (11) its being a product of spiritual practice alone, (12) its being associated with the material realm alone, (13) its being only present in meditative trance, (14) its involving either, neither or both of initial and sustained thought, (15) its being associated with the faculties of satisfaction, contentedness and equanimity, (16) its continuing through several moments, (17) its being subject to retrogression.

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The four good roots in the cases of the bodhisattva, the solitary disciple and the disciple who practices with his colleagues are explained.

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Though there is no fixed order in which the aids to penetration are developed by the other two, the bodhisattva, having developed the aids to penetration in past lives, develops all the aids in his single last lifetime as he practices the fourth meditation.

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The four good roots can be developed by men and gods abiding in the realm of desire, except for those residing in the northern Kuru region. They can be achieved by those in a female body or that of a eunuch who has a male mentality.

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Part Three: Heat

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The first good root, being near the heat of wisdom, has as its characteristic features wisdom regarding what it heard, thought, and practiced. The differentiations (svalakṣaṇa) and shared features (sāmānyalakṣaṇa), as well as the content (viṣaya) of this stage are identified.

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Three groups of good practices are distinguished that lead toward liberation: these are mindfulness of the inner peace of the five kinds of awareness, the mindfulness of the distributive features of things, and the mindfulness of the collective features of things. It takes three lifetimes to realize liberation swiftly, but for the slower it may take a *kalpa* or a hundred *kalpas*. Even those who are able to realize these stages of penetration may fall into a thousand lifetimes.

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Part Four: Wrong Views

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(8.36a-40b) Beliefs that the body is real are explained in twenty verses, and are distinguished into five kinds of wrong views about self and fifteen wrong views related to self, but there may be counted as many as 936 kinds of wrong views about self.

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Part Five: What is Involved in and Excluded from Wrong Views

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Five kinds of wrong views must be totally annihilated in the path of vision. They are (1) views insisting on the existence of a self and things belonging to it (*satkāyadṛṣṭi*), explained in twenty verses;⁸ (2) views insisting on one or another of extreme theses (*antagrāhadṛṣṭi*), explained in twenty verses; (3) wrong views (*mithyādṛṣṭi*) especially derived from rejecting moral and spiritual causation, explained in 80 verses; (4) views insisting on erroneous views as correct (*dṛṣṭiparāmarśadṛṣṭi*), expounded in 80 verses; (5) views insisting on wrong rules and vows as leading to liberation (*śīlavrataparāmarśadṛṣṭi*), explained in 40 verses.

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Other topics are discussed here, such as the concept of essential nature (*svabhāva*), whether self is material, whether anyone holds the view that a single atom has a self. But there is no self dissociated from the aggregates. The nature, antidote (*pratipakṣa*) and originating (*samutthāna*) of these views are examined. Ordinary men do not examine these matters, and even some teachers fail to do so and die without annihilating the delusions involved.

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(9.40c-42c) There are two kinds of self: the self composed of factors, which exists, and the person (*pudgalātman*), which does not.

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Views of wrong rules and vows are of two sorts: (1) regarding what is not a cause as a true cause—e.g., a belief in creator God; (2) regarding what is not a path as a path. The first kind is the same as wrong views.

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There are five kinds of existence, beginning with real existence (*dravyasat*) and nominal existence (*prajñaptisat*). False awareness is of two kinds: afflicted (*upakliṣṭa*) and unafflicted (*anupakliṣṭa*). Afflicted awareness is so called from the higher standpoint (*paramārtha), while unafflicted awareness is so called from the conventional standpoint (saṃvṛtti).

Chapter Two: Awareness

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Part One: Single Awareness

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(42c-43c) Mahāsāṅghika: Awareness and its associated factors cognize their essential natures by themselves; they have the faculty of awareness as their essential nature, just as a candle illumines itself as well as others.

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Dharmaguptaka: Awareness and associated factors cognize their connection.

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Mahīśāsaka: Awareness and associated factors cognize their co-presence. The cognitive faculty of those factors which are correlative among themselves know those dissimilar that are not correlated with them. The cognitive faculty of the noncorrelative factors know those dissimilar factors which are mutually correlative.

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Vātsīputrīya: The person has the faculty of awareness.

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Vātsīputrīyas and others: Awareness and associated factors cannot cognize their essential nature, their association, or their co-presence. An awareness does not know any factor whatever, since it is other than those factors which are in possession of their essential nature, association and co-presence. An essential nature cannot know its essential nature.

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All four views are rejected (it is remarked that this also refutes the view of the master of the western region).

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Part Two: Single Consciousness

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(44b-45c) Awareness and consciousness are not different in their essential nature. Awareness only acts on its proper contents, viz. the twelve senses. It cognizes both general and specific features.

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Vātsīputrīya: Awareness constitutes only a part of the path, and consciousness only a part of phenomenal existence.

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Dārṣṭāntika: Awareness and consciousness are not concomitant; one must precede the other.

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The difference between the pure and impure features of nonself is discussed.

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(11.45c-50c) Discussion of the functional features of nonself (i.e. of a collection of factors). That feature is found in seven stages, (e.g., the sensuous realm, the stage of the nonreturner, the stage between the first and second meditation, and the four states of meditation-concentration. Though it is found in the immaterial realm it does not act upon all factors there. It is impure. A perfected being may set the impure feature of the nonself into action on the basis of four conditions.

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Some say that causes and conditions have no essential nature.

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Part Three: The Supporting Object of Two Awarenesses

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Mahāsāṅghika: Two awarenesses may arise concomitantly within a person. Some even say that these awarenesses become the cause of the person, but that is not the correct interpretation of the Mahāsāṅghika view.

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In any case, the Mahāsāṅghika theory is incorrect. The awareness of wrong views and the awareness of impurity mutually evolve in reciprocal interaction. One awareness in one series and another in the same series mutually evolve in reciprocal interaction. Likewise, there is reciprocal interaction among the mental states (classified into ten types) as well as among other mental and material factors classified into eighteen elements, ten good mental factors, etc.

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Some say: A directly antecedent condition is not really existent. The Mahāsāṅghika theory is refuted in detail.

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The orthodox say that the six groups of awareness do not arise concomitantly or simultaneously.

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A perfected being's last awareness and mental states are not a directly antecedent condition (of anything).

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Vasumitra and others are surveyed on the properties on the directly antecedent condition. It is proposed that even if there is some difference between the preceding and succeeding moments of a factor there is no error in naming them as directly antecedent conditions.

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(11.51a-55b) There is no directly antecedent condition within a future life.

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Bhadanta Kātyāyanīputra: Material factors cannot be directly antecedent conditions. Conditions dissociated from awareness are not directly antecedent conditions.

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The directly antecedent condition does not explain the production of the meditative states whose maturations are without conceptual identification.

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The two highest meditative states (of the basis of neither-identification-nor-nonidentification and the cessation trance) have no directly antecedent conditions in between for even one kalpa, and so are called "directly antecedent concentrations".

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Direct antecedence of awareness and awareness free from interval are differentiated through use of the catuṣkoṭi, etc.

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The reciprocal arising of twelve awarenesses is explained.

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Vātsīputrīya: The person really exists.

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The following are heretical views: that factors mutually withdraw from existence; that factors mutually change their nature; that factors mutually pass away; that an awareness abides for two moments; that the mind element is without change; that change takes place between one moment of the aggregates to another moment of the aggregates; that the preceding awareness passes information on to the subsequent awareness.

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(12.55a-57b) Even though there is no self, through the force of dispositions a homogeneous awareness arises in identifying the subsequent moment of experience in reference to it.

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Visual consciousness and factors associated with awareness are produced in response to some corresponding material aggregate. Mental consciousness and factors associated with awareness are produced in response to the totality of factors.

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Awarenesses and mental states are produced in response to objective spheres according to their epistemic bases. They are also determined according to their epistemic base.

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Some say that since the moment of arising is still functionally in a future moment, awarenesses and mental states do not act upon objective spheres; whereas the moment of perishing is still functionally at the moment they are acting upon objective spheres.

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The nature of the collection of awarenesses and mental states that belong to the preceding moment of the series can be explained in reference to volitional speech (*manośabda*), while the nature of the collection of awareness and mental states that belong to the subsequent moment of the series can be explained by reference to recollective speech (*smṛtiśabda*).

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There are two features of the mind: one receives the functional features of awarenesses and mental states acting on the objective spheres, while the other receives the form of and becomes the objective sphere. There are up to twelve kinds.

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Part Four: Memory

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(57b-58b) Vasumitra: Even though there is no self, a person can recollect what happened earlier through three assisting conditions: (1) that awareness and mental states take a homogeneous form from the preceding collection of awarenesses and mental states; (2) that a commonly shared portion continues to survive from the preceding to the subsequent moment as constituents of the collection; (3) because of these two, there is no chance of losing the memory.

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The homogeneous portion has three functional features: (1) active process, (2) passive process (=objective sphere); and (3) conformity between the two. Because of these functional features recollection is possible.

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Part Five: Faith

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(58b-61b) Loss of memory is also traced to three features in the heterogeneous portion, Memory loss occurs to anyone who abides in the realm of desire, in the five stages of the cycle of rebirth, in the world of men; it also occurs to those saintly human beings who abide in the four states of sainthood, but not to the world-honored one (=the Buddha).

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Among those who once abided in hell, anyone can recollect his past experience and can thereby know the mind of others who belong to the same group as regards their past experiences. This occurs only at the very beginning moment of rebirth.

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Some kinds of animals can recollect past experiences. Ghosts can as well.

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The phenomena of weather such as clouds, rainfall, heat, cold, etc. are induced by the dragon’s active function but are at the same time concurrent effects of conditions in the vicinity. The water flowing out of the dragon’s palace, however, is not an induction from its active function but rather an effect created by the common karma of all living beings.

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Those born among heavenly beings can recollect past experiences.

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In the world of men none have the power of recollecting past lives normally given to them by birth.

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There is further discussion about the ghosts.

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Part Six: Number of Sense-Faculties

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(13.61c-65b) Vasumitra: Visual awareness perceives its material object.

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Ghoṣaka: The wisdom correlative to visual awareness perceives the material object.

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Dārṣṭāntika: The harmonious whole of these factors perceives the material object.

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Vātsīputrīya: The visual faculty alone perceives the material object.

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All four theories are mistaken. The correct view is that one perceives a material object through the interaction between the visual faculty and a material object. There are functionally two kinds of visual organ, one which can connect itself with consciousness and thereby perceives its material object, and the other which does not connect itself with consciousness and thereby does not see its object.

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Both eyes simultaneously perceive a material object, no matter how far apart they may be. The sense-organs of hearing and smelling are also twofold, though they function as one.

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A distinction is drawn between the visual organ acquired by karmic maturation at birth and the organ that results from further accumulations.

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The visual organ is atomically constituted. It is capable of going out to its object. But none of the five kinds of consciousness—visual, etc.—have an atom as locus or content.

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The orthodox view (viz., of the Vibhāṣāśāstrins) is: There are twenty kinds of material sense bases. Some of us say there are twenty-one. An atom has various forms, e.g., rectangular; but it cannot be perceived.

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Vasumitra: Vision depends on the four kinds of conditions, so that even when an object is present it may not be visually cognized.

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Sāmkhya: Vision depends on eight kinds of conditions so that even when the object is present it may not be seen.

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The number of kinds of auditory sense bases are eight, of olfactory bases four, of gustatory bases six, and of tactual bases eleven.

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The specific characteristic of a thing is twofold: (1) as objective fact, (2) according to its epistemic base. Externally existing smell, taste, touch, etc. are respectively the direct cause for the inner faculties of smelling, tasting, touching, etc. to produce their awarenesses.

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A bodhisattva's six faculties are so sharp that he could single out a single candle when extinguished out of five hundred other candles.

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Part Seven: The Past

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(65b-66a) Some say: Whatever does not exist in the past or future but exists at present must be an unconditioned factor. Whatever exists in its coming to be and going away is a conditioned factor at present.

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There are two kinds of past: (1) the world that has passed away, and (2) the inner concentration that has passed away. There are two kinds of future existence, namely (1) the world that has not yet come into existence, and (2) the inner obstruction that does not bring itself into being.

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When Brahmarāja hid himself the Buddha knew his presence, but when the Buddha hid himself Brahmarāja could not see his presence.

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The five sets of alternatives in the text are analyzed.

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Part Eight: Perplexity

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(66b-69b) Is there or is there not a real perplexity about frustration? There are sixteen moments from the state of steadiness of insight into the nature of factors as frustrating up to the insight into the noble truth of the path regarding the material and immaterial.

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Since some theorists hold that there are hundreds of thousands of lives and deaths that one has to pass through, in order to make it easy to understand multiple moments are explained to make up a single awareness.

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Part Nine: Of Names, Words and Phonemes

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(69c-71c) Dārṣṭāntika: A collection of names, of words or of phonemes is not a real entity.

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Śābdika: These collections have language (*śabda*) as their essence.

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The "orthodox" view: Collections of words, etc. are real entities and belong to the class of conditions, dissociated from awareness. Without investigating the nature of such collections some fall into the hell-world, etc. But one should not feel anger upon hearing abusive words, etc.

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The name is basic; it fills up any collections of words. The composition of *sūtras* and verse *śāstras* is analyzed. A phoneme is analyzed as an *akṣara*.

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(15.71c-77a) Do words follow linguistic functions (*vākyabhūmi*) or the functions of persons (*pudgalabhūmi*)? Words belong to human kind and are not confined to any particular individual. Words are neutral in nature.

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The Buddha is capable of responding to a moment of thought and of explaining a moment of speech by means of a single character, whereas disciples and those enlightened for themselves can do the former but not the latter.

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Meanings are different from words. People in the unmemorable past organized words and thoughts among themselves.

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Vasumitra: Speech leads to the rise of words, and words reveal meaning.

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The four aggregates other than matter are called "names" because they can be expressed by their names, while the material aggregate because of its grossness reveals itself.

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The number of kinds of names is variously said to be six, four and two. There are three kinds of word-referents—in the past, present and future. Their nature is explained. Vasumitra, Bhadanta Kātyāyanīputra and Pārśva are cited as giving different reasons why there is no reference by higher worldly factors.

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Four kinds of question and answer are distinguished: (1) categorical affirmation or rejection or negation; (2) analysis of the different meanings implied in a question; (3) answering by questioning the meanings implied in a question; (4) not answering at all when a question is not appropriate to answer. The last is illustrated by the story of the perfected being Vāsula, who answered the heretic Caṇḍāla by silence and thereby defeated him.

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Part Ten: The Fatigue of the Buddha

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(16.77a-78b) The Buddha totally annihilated all defilements without any conditionings remaining; the saintly disciples of the two vehicles also annihilate defilements, but do not completely overcome remaining conditionings. E.g., in Ānanda and Śāriputra one found such. When the Buddha reprimanded his disciples he was not teaching them.

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Part Eleven: Six (Moral) Causes

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1. Enumeration

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(79a-79b) The six causes are propounded in order to refute the idea that there is no causality, that causality is imbalanced (i.e. that God is cause), or the Dārṣṭāntika theory that things do not really exist.

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Some theorists hold that the six kinds of cause involve six kinds of effect. Thus the associated and corresponding causes both produce fruits of human action, etc.

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The theory of four conditions is found in the sūtras, but not the theory of the six causes. That theory was taught in the Ekottara Āgama, but the information is hidden among the passages of the text, according to some theorists. Some also say that there is no single sūtra in which the six causes are propounded in proper order and contiguously, and yet they are treated in various sūtras scattered here and there.

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2. The Connected Cause

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(79c-81b) Dārṣṭāntika: Awarenesses and concomitant mental factors arise mutually alternating as preceding or succeeding moment but never arise simultaneously.

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Vaibhāṣika: They arise simultaneously as well.

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Some say: The essential nature of one group of factors and that of another can occur as co-originating. Various interpretations of a "co-originating occurrence" are refuted. The logic of co-originating occurrence is illustrated by the ten factors arising with every awareness. "Connected" (in the title of this section) means co-originating occurrence, that is, that two groups of factors are identical in their essential nature.

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Dhumika or Kuha: The four aggregates occur co-originating, i.e. in association.

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Vaibhāṣika: All five aggregates occur in association. But although the four great elements are invariably concurrent, because they have no epistemic basis they are not in correlated occurrence.

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Bhadanta Kātyāyanīputra: "Associated" means "identical companion".

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Ghoṣaka: "Associated" means the identity as to the respective bases, contents, forms and goals between two groups of factors.

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3. The Simultaneous Cause

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(81b-82b) Awareness becomes simultaneous cause for those factors that are incurred by bodily and vocal acts evolving along with awareness. Explanation of the essential nature of "evolving along with" (anuvartin).

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(17.82c-85b) What is it that evolves along with awareness in bodily and vocal acts? Not restraint in the immaterial realm. But the restraint that arises in pure concentration and in the concentration belonging to the material sphere both evolve along with awareness. This is tested with a fourfold alternation. Also, that restraint that arises while the practitioner investigates the knowledge of the path as the last step before completing the practice of undefiled insight into the nature of factors is also regarded as evolving along with awareness.

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The different numbers of restraints of the disciples, the Buddha, etc., are distinguished. -

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At the moment when a person reaches the state of perfected being, how many stages are there in which he acquires perceptual restraint as evolving in his body along with his awareness? Answers provided by the masters of the Western regions and those of Kashmir are varied.

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4. Homogeneous Cause

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(85b) Various classifications of this reviewed.

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5. Pervasive Cause

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(18.90c-93b) Various classifications and conflicting theories are reviewed.

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Defilements in the sensual realm can act upon the material and immaterial realms. Among the eleven members of the pervasive contaminants, nine members act not only on their own domains but also others' domains as well, while the other two members act only on their own.

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(19.93c-95a) False view can be eliminated through knowledge of the truth of frustration and of its cause in the sensual realm; they do not increase themselves in acting in the material and immaterial realms.

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Defiled factors to be eliminated by a perfected being's repeated practice have origination by way of acting upon others or have no origination: a variety of views are classified.

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6. Maturation Cause

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(96a-99a) Dārṣṭāntika: No maturation cause is found dissociated from awareness, nor is there any effectuation from the maturation cause without feeling.

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Mahāsāṅghika: Only the awareness and awareness-concomitants are capable of having maturation causes and effects from them.

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Kāśyapīya: A maturation cause continues to function as long as its effect does not reach maturation, but is bound to decay when it has reached full maturation.

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Some heretics say: Good or bad that is done do not bear satisfaction or frustration as their respective maturations.

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Sarvāstivādin: There are seven different factors in the category of cognizable manifest actions (*vijñaptikarman*) each of which has a maturation effect. Each member comprises many atoms and each atom has three time dimensions, while each time dimension comprises multiple moments, each moment being a maturation effect.

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Discussion of various theories about what kind of maturation cause produces the trance free from conceptual identification.

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Concerning the maturation of karma to be received within one and the same lifetime, the maturation of karma to be received in the immediately following life, the maturation of karma to be received in the third life and after.

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There are many theories about the meaning of the word "maturation". One difference is between maturation of homogeneous effects and of heterogeneous effects.

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There is no maturation involving unconditioned factors or neutral factors.

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(20.99a-103c) The action of one moment invites common characteristics shared by living beings. One action determines an entire lifetime. Sometimes an action mixed with another induces some effect other than its own, while when operating independently it only produces its own effect.

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The karmic maturations of animals, ghosts, gods and bisexuals are discussed. Also the maturations of deeds in the three spheres (sensual, material and immaterial).

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The good factors in the initial stage of meditation have in common being the maturations of the same kind of cause. In the sensual realm the three roots opposing the three good roots are stronger. The strongest good karma influences one's life for a duration of 80,000 larger *kalpas*, while the strongest bad karma influences one's life negatively for 20 median *kalpas*. Bad acts in the sensual realm lead to the five different courses through their maturations, but good acts do not.

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Some say that those who fell into evil courses because they killed living beings and who are later reborn as human will have shorter lives.

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Question: How can the good conduct of parents help their ten-year-old child live longer?

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Four kinds of death—due to natural exhaustion of the natural life span, etc. A perfected being’s karma must all mature so that he will not be reborn.

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7. Efficient Cause

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(103c-109b) Heretics hold that when factors come into existence they arise without cause. Some say that only conditioned factors can become general existential causes. Still others say that efficient causes receive as well as produce effects. Again, there are those who deny that there are any efficient causes which arise after their effects.

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In response to all these the correct view is expounded. The essential nature of the efficient cause is identical with that of the dominant condition. Still there are varied opinions about this offered by Vasumitra, Buddhadeva, Bhadanta Kātyāyanīputra and others.

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Dārṣṭāntika: The origin of a factor requires causes and conditions, but the termination does not. If both the origin and termination of a factor are equally bound to wait for causes and conditions to work, why don’t they arise simultaneously when they terminate? Vasumitra, Bhadanta Kātyāyanīputra⁹ and Ghoṣaka are reviewed on this.

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The causal aspect of factors lies in their function. The essential nature of a factor is unchanged, and so cannot be a cause or effect.

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Question: Since Mt. Sumeru and all the continents, etc. are the product of the mutual karma of all beings, what will happen to, e.g., Mt. Sumeru when someone attains final liberation? Vasumitra: Since there is a limitless number of sentient beings alive, even if a large number of persons attain liberation the karma of the rest will maintain order. Buddhadeva: Besides, past as well as present karma is responsible for Mt. Sumeru; it will not be affected by a single person’s demise.

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The six types of causes mutually combine to make up many classifications of causes. The relationships among them are examined. It is also discussed which of the six are defiled, which undefiled, which worldly, which higher worldly, etc. Then the six are permuted with the four kinds of conditions. Finally, a cause is distinguished from a condition.

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Part Twelve: Contaminants in Relation to Awareness and its Destruction

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(22.110a-115a) Some who advocate the continuity of one and the same awareness say: There is no difference between an awareness affected by contaminants and another awareness unaffected by them insofar as the essential nature of the awareness in question is concerned. It is only when those contaminants are destroyed that the awareness is said to be absolutely free.

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Dārṣṭāntika: It is only relating to the person that the notion of increase for a contaminant makes sense.

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There are five major groups of contaminants: (1) those causing delusion about the four noble truths, (2) those causing delusion, i.e. attachment, hatred and pride in the three realms; (3) generally permeating contaminants; (4) generally permeating bad forces, and (5) limited permeating bad forces. They have a nature capable of increasing force within an awareness affected by similar contaminants.

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Theories of Bhadanta Kātyāyanīputra, Ghoṣaka and Buddhadeva are reviewed relating to the state of being afflicted by contaminants respecting the supporting object.

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Contaminants grow in two ways: (1) with regard to their supporting object, (2) with regard to their connected factors. Even past and future contaminants grow, though only present ones exert activity.

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Śrīlāta, a Sthavira or Dārṣṭāntika: No. (1) If contaminants related to supporting objects, then pure factors could be objects of the growth of contaminants, and (2) if contaminants grow with regard to their connected factors, these factors will *always* grow, since connected factors never become dissociated.

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Answer: No. (1) Only impure factors in the present can conduce to growth. And (2) even though the connected factors cannot be disconnected, they can be overpowered by contrary forces arising in the life-stream.

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Part Thirteen: Consciousness Destroyed by the Instrumentality of its Objective Field

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Consider the state in which one has acquired knowledge of the frustration-truth but not yet of the origin-truth. The destruction of those contaminants to be destroyed through the path of vision can be increased as to one particular group as well as to other groups as a whole. Likewise relating to the path of spiritual practice. Contaminants can increase their force in relation to those associated with it as well as of the supporting object. Such an increase is possible because of the four aggregates excluding matter. Ghoṣaka: Past as well as future contaminants can increase their influence. Vasumitra: It is because of all five aggregates that the contaminants can be destroyed. Question: At which moment does wisdom no more see any objects? At the moment when contaminants are destroyed? Discussion by fourfold argument.

Chapter Three: Personality

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Part One: Dependent Origination

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(116c-117c) Some say: Although past and future factors have no essential nature, and only present ones do, factors are unconditioned in nature. The Vibhajyavādin says that dependent origination itself is unconditioned. There are four kinds of conditions of dependent origination: (1) momentary, (2) related to successive moments, (3) related to a particular stage, (4) bound to remote continuity.

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