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The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies v8: Volume 8

The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies v8

Language
English

Contents

Volume 8

Front matter

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General Editor: Karl H. Potter

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The following volumes are published: I. Bibliography. Sections I and II, 3rd ed. (1995) II. Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology: The Tradition of Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika up to Gaṅgeśa (1977) III. Advaita Vedānta up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils (1981) IV. Sāṃkhya: A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy (1987) V. The Philosophy of the Grammarians (1990) VI. Indian Philosophical Analysis: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika from Gaṅgeśa to Raghunātha Śiromaṇi (1993) VII. Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 A.D. (1996)

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHIES VOLUME VIII

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Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 A.D.

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EDITED BY KARL H. POTTER

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MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LIMITED ● DELHI

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First Edition: Delhi, 1999

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© MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LIMITED All Rights Reserved

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ISBN: 81-208-1553-x

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MOTILAL BANARSIDASS 41 U.A. Bungalow Road, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi 110 007 8 Mahalaxmi Chamber, Warden Road, Mumbai 400 026 120 Royapettah High Road, Mylapore, Chennai 600 004 Sanas Plaza, 1302 Baji Rao Road, Pune 411 002 16 St. Mark's Road, Bangalore 560 001 8 Camac Street, Calcutta 700 017 Ashok Rajpath, Patna 800 004 Chowk, Varanasi 221 001

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PRINTED IN INDIA BY JAINENDRA PRAKASH JAIN AT SHRI JAINENDRA PRESS, A-45 NARAINA, PHASE I, NEW DELHI 110 028 AND PUBLISHED BY NARENDRA PRAKASH JAIN FOR MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LIMITED, BUNGALOW ROAD, DELHI 110 007

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Contributors:

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Stefan Anacker Kamaleshwar Bhattacharya Bhadanta Santi Bhiksu Robert Buswell, Jr. Edward Conze Collett Cox Peter Della Santina Bart Dessein Nalinaksha Dutt Paul Griffiths Paul Harrison Megumu Honda Charles W. Huntington, Jr. Leslie S. Kawamura John P. Keenan Jan Hendrik Kern Karen Lang Christian Lindtner Rajendralal Mitra Robert F. Olson Paul Pelliot Karl H. Potter Constantin Regamey David Seyfort Ruegg N. H. Samtani Lambert Schmithausen Nancy Schuster George Teschner K. Timura A. K. Warder Alex Wayman Hideko Wayman

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Chapter One: Introduction 3 Nāgārjuna and Āryadeva 11 The Prajñāpāramitā and the Rise of Mahāyāna 16 Buddhist Schools and Sects 20 Theravāda in Sri Lanka 28 The Coming of Yogācāra 29

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Chapter Two: The Buddhist Picture of Karma 31 The Path 35 Culminating Stages of the Path 41 Revolution at the Basis 46

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Chapter Three: Categories of Factors 49 Physical Factors 50 Mental Factors 53 Concomitant Awarenesses 62 Unconditioned Factors 73

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PART TWO:

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SUMMARIES OF WORKS

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1.Ṣaṭpāramitā (1st cent. A.D.) 79 2.Bodhisattvapiṭaka (1st c. A.D.) 79 3.Triskandhadharmaparyāya (1st c. A.D.) 79 4.Kātyāyanavadānasūtra (1st c. A.D.) 79 5.Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra (100) (Olson) 79 6.Ren ben yu sheng jing (100) 86 7.Yiqie liu she shou yin jing (100) 87 8.Si di jing (100) 87 9.Ben xiang yi zhi jing (100) 87 10. Lou fenbu jing (100) 87
11. Pu fayi jing (100) 87
12. Ba zheng dao jing (100) 87
13. Da anban shouyi jing (100) 88
14. Yin chi ru jing (100) 88
15. Chanxing faxiang jing (100) 88
16. Ajātaśatrukṛtyavinodanasūtra (125) 88
17. Kāśyapaparivartasūtra (125) 89
18. Akṣobhyavyūhasūtra (125) 90
19. Drumakinnarasūtra (125) (Harrison) 90
20. Lokānuvartanasūtra (125) (Harrison) 93
21. Pratyutpannabuddhasanmukhāvasthitasūtra (125) 93
22. Dou sha jing (125) 93
23. Wenshushili wen pusa shu jing (125) 94
24. Śūraṅgamasūtra (125) (Teschner) 95
25. Dharmacakrapravartanasūtra (130) 95
26. Maitreyaparipṛcchāsūtra (130) 96
27. Ugra(datta)paripṛcchāsūtra (130) (Schuster) 96
28. Chengju quangming dingyi jing (140) 98
29. Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha- or Amitābhavyūha-sūtra (150) 124
30. Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūhasūtra (150) 133
31. Ratnaguṇasaṃcayagāthā (150) 143
32. Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra (150) 150
33. Madhyamakakārikās (Nāgārjuna) (150) (Lindtner) 153
34. Vigrahavyāvarttanī (Nāgārjuna) (150) (Bhattacharya) 161
35. Śūnyatāsaptati (Nāgārjuna) (150) (Della Santina) 163
36. Vaidalyaprakaraṇa (Nāgārjuna) (150) (Lindtner) 177
37. Yuktiṣaṣṭikā (Nāgārjuna) (150) 179
38. Ratnāvalī (Nāgārjuna) (150) (Lindtner/Potter) 180
39. Pratītyasamutpādahṛdaya (150) (Della Santina) 181
40. Suḥṛllekha (Nāgārjuna) (150) (Della Santina) 185
41. Bodhisambhāra (Nāgārjuna) (150) 192
42. Vyavahārasiddhi (Nāgārjuna) (150) (Lindtner) 194
43. Mahāyānaviṃśikā (Nāgārjuna) (150) (Lindtner) 198
44. Catuḥstava (Nāgārjuna) (150) (Lindtner) 215
45. Samādhirāja- or Candrapradīpa-sūtra (150) (Mitra/Dutt) 222
46. Vimalakīrtinirdeśasūtra (160) (Warder) 228
47. Śālistambasūtra (170) 228
48. Catuḥśataka (Āryadeva) (180) (Lang) 229

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49. *Śataka (Āryadeva) (180) (Lang) 229
50. Akṣaraśataka and Ṭīkā (Āryadeva) (Lang) 229
51. Tathāgatotpattisambhavanirdeśasūtra (180) 230
52. Abhidharmahṛdaya (Upaśānta) (200) 230
53. Śatasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra (200) 230
54. Pañcaviṃśatiprajñāpāramitāsūtra (200) 230
55. Aṣṭādaśasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra (200) 230
56. Ṣaṇmukhidhāraṇīsūtra (200) (Anacker) 230
57. Jinaputrārthasiddhisūtra (200) 230
58. Kṣemaṅkaraparipṛcchāsūtra (200) 231
59. Mahālālikaparipṛcchāsūtra (200) 231
60. Nāgaropamasūtra (200) 233
61. Nandopanandanāgarājasūtra (200) 234
62. Puṣpakūṭadhāraṇīsūtra (200) 236
63. Tathāgatajñānamudrā(samādhi)sūtra (200) 237
64. Vatsasūtra (250) 237
65. Tathāgatapratibimbapratiṣṭhānasūtra (200) 238
66. Surataparipṛcchāsūtra (200) 238
67. Mahārājakaṇiṣkalekha (Mātṛceṭa) (200) (Lindtner) 238
68. Varṇāhavarṇa (Mātṛceṭa) (210) (Lindtner) 238
69. Śatapañcāśatka (Mātṛceṭa) (210) (Lindtner) 238
70. Viśeṣastava (Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin) (210) (Lindtner) 239
71. Prajñāpāramitāstotra (Rāhulabhadra) (225) (Ruegg) 239
72. Kumāralāta (230) 239
73. Akṣayamatinirdeśasūtra (250) (Kawamura) 239
74. Aṅgulimālikāsūtra (250) 240
75. Aśokadattavyākaraṇasūtra (250) 240
76. Aśokarājāvadānasūtra (250) 240
77. Aṣṭabuddhakasūtra (250) 240
78. Bhadrakalpikasamādhisūtra (250)
79. Bhadramayākaravyākaraṇasūtra (250) (Regamey)
80. Buddhasaṃgitisūtra (250)
81. Candraprabhākumarasūtra (250)
82. Caturdārakasamādhisūtra (250)
83. Daśabhūmikasūtra (250)
84. Daśadigandhakāravidhvaṃsanasūtra (250)
85. Garbhāvakrāntinirdeśasūtra (250)
86. Hastikakṣayasūtra (250)
87. (Upāyakauśalya)Jñānottarabodhisattvaparipṛcchāsūtra (250)

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88.Karuṇikarājasūtra (250) 240 89.Lokanāthavyākaraṇasūtra (250) 240 90.Mahāvaipulyamūrdharājasūtra (250) 240 91.Mahāyānopadeśasūtra (250) 240 92.Maitreyaparipṛcchāparivartasūtra (250) 240 93.Mañjuśrībuddhakṣetraguṇasūtra (250) 240 94.Mañjuśrīvikrīḍitasūtra (250) 241 95.Mañjuśrīvikurvaṇaparivartasūtra (250) 241 96.Nandapravrajyāsūtra (250) 241 97.Paramārthasaṃvṛtisatyanirdeśasūtra (250) 241 98.Pravaraṇasūtra (2500) 241 99.Ratnacandraparipṛcchāsūtra (241) 241 100.Ratnacūḍaparipṛcchāsūtra (250) 241 101.Ratnajaliparipṛcchāsūtra (250) 241 102.Ratnakaraṇḍasūtra (250) 241 103.Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra (250) (Kern) 241 104.Sāgaranāgaraparipṛcchāsūtra (250) 243 105.Samantamukhaparivartasūtra (250) 243 106.Sarvapuṇyasamuccayasamādhisūtra (250) 243 107.Sarvavaipulyavidyāsiddhasūtra (250) 243 108.Siṃhaparipṛcchāsūtra (250) 243 109.Śrīmālādevīsiṃhanādasūtra (250) (A. and H. Wayman) 243 110.Śrīmatībhadhamaṇiparipṛcchāsūtra (250) 245 111.Strīvivartyavyākaraṇasūtra (250) 245 112.Sumatidārikaparipṛcchāsūtra (250) 245 113.Susthitamatidevapūtraparipṛcchāsūtra (250) 245 114.Svapnanirdeśasūtra (250) 245 115.Tathāgatacintyaguhyanirdeśasūtra (250) 245 116.Tathāgatagarbhasūtra (250) 245 117.Udayanavatsarājaparipṛcchāsūtra (250) 245 118.Upāyakauśalyasūtra (250) 245 119.Vaiduryarājasūtra (250) 245 120.Vidyutprāptaparipṛcchāsūtra (250) 245 121.Vīradatta(gṛhapati)paripṛcchāsūtra (250) 245 122.Vimaladattaparipṛcchā (250) 245 123.Viśeṣacintā(brahma)paripṛcchāsūtra (250) 245 124.Vimuttimagga (250) (Potter) 246 125.Ātānātikasūtra (250) 255 126.Tattvasiddhi (Harivarman) (253) (Potter) 255

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127.Subāhuparipṛcchāsūtra (260) 312 128.Śukasūtra (260) 312 129.Sumantabhadrabodhisattvadhayañcayādharmasūtra (260) 312 130.Bhaiṣajyaguruvaiḍūryaprabhasyāpūrvapraṇidhāna-viśeṣavistarasūtra (280) 312 131.Mahāyānābhidharmasūtra (300) (Dutt) 313 132.Buddhabhūmisūtra (300) (Keenan) 313 133.Saṃyuktābhidharmasūtra (Dharmatrāta) (300) (Dessein) 314 134.Pañcavastukāvibhāṣā (Dharmatrāta) (300) (Lindtner) 319 135.Arthaviniścayasūtra (300) (Samtani) 321 136.Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra (325) 323 137.Madhyamakakārikā-Akutobhayā (Piṅgala) (325) 329 138.Laṅkāvatārasūtra (325) 332 139.Nirayasūtra (340) 346 140.Ekottarāgamasūtra (345) 346 141.Bodhisattvapūrvacaryāsūtra (350) 346 142.Buddhapiṭakaduḥśīlanirgrahasūtra (350) 346 143.Candragarbhasūtra (350) 346 144.Dhāraṇī(śvara)rājasūtra (350) 346 145.Gayāśīrṣasūtra (350) 346 146.Kuśalamūlasamparigṛhasūtra (350) 346 147.Mahāmayūrī(vidyārājñī)sūtra (350) 346 148.Maitreyavyākaraṇasūtra (350) 346 149.Pūrṇaparipṛcchāsūtra or Bodhisattvapiṭakasūtra (350) 346 150.Śāriputraparipṛcchāsūtra (350) 346 151.Saddharmapravṛttinirdeśasūtra (350) 346 152.Sumukha(dhāraṇī)sūtra (350) 347 153.Upāliparipṛcchāsūtra (350) 347 154.Vikurvaṇarājaparipṛcchāsūtra (350) 347 155.Daśabhūmikavibhāṣāsūtra (Nāgārjuna) (350) 347 156.Prajñāpāramitāhṛdayasūtra (350) (Conze) 347 157.Vajracchedikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra (350) (Conze) 348 158.Śrīlāta (350) 349 159.Caturāgamavibhāṣa (Vasubhadra) (350) 349 160.Sammitīyanikāyaśāstra (350) (Buswell) 353 161.Dharmatārādhyāyanasūtra (360) 365 162.Ratnarāśisūtra (360) 365 163.Dvādaśa(dvāra)mukhaśāstra (Nāgārjuna) (360) (Potter) 365 164.Madhyāntavibhāgasūtra (360) (Anacker) 374 165. Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra (Vyavadātasamaya) (Anacker) 382
166. Yogācārabhūmi (Asaṅga) (Potter/Schmithausen/Davidson) 398
167. Vikhyāpanaśāstra and Bhāṣya thereon (Asaṅga) (300) 433
168. Abhidharmasamuccaya (Asaṅga) (360) (Griffiths) 434
169. Triśatikāyāḥprajñāpāramitākārikāsaptati (Asaṅga) (360) 452
170. Mahāyāsaṃgraha (Asaṅga) (360) (Anacker) 459
171. Dharmadharmatāvibhāga (360) (Anacker) 476
172. Abhisamayālaṃkāra (360) (Anacker) 478
173. Abhidharmakośa (Vasubandhu) (360) (Anacker/Potter) 486
174. Abhidharmakośabhāṣya (Vasubandhu) (360) (Anacker) 516
175. Pratītyasamutpāda-vyākhyā or -vibhaṅganirdeśa (Vasubandhu) (360) (Anacker) 565
176. Aparamitāyuḥsūtropadeśa (Vasubandhu) (360) 565
177. Buddhānusmṛtiṭīkā (Vasubandhu) (360) 566
178. Bhadracaryāpraṇidhānaṭīkā (Vasubandhu) (360) 566
179. Commentary on the Caturdharmakasūtra (Vasubandhu) 566
180. Saṇmukhī-Vyākhyāna (Vasubandhu) (360) 566
181. Daśabhūmikasūtravyākhyā (Vasubandhu) (360) 567
182. Dharmacakrapravartanasūtra (Vasubandhu) (360) 567
183. Gāthāsaṃgrahaśāstrārtha (Vasubandhu) (360) 567
184. Gayāśīrṣasūtraṭīkā (Vasubandhu) (360) 567
185. Mahāyānaśatadharmakaprakāśamukhaśāstra (Vasubandhu) 567
186. Nirvāṇasūtrapūrvabhūtotpannabhūtaśāstra (Vasubandhu) 567
187. Commentary on a Prajñāpāramitāsūtra (Vasubandhu) 567
188. Commentary on Ratnacūḍāmaṇisūtra (Vasubandhu) (360) 567
189. Commentary on the Śrīmālāsiṃhanādasūtra (Vasubandhu) (360) 567
190. Saddharmapuṇḍarīkopadeśa (Vasubandhu) (360) 567
191. Sukhāvatīvyūhopadeśa (Vasubandhu) (360) (Kiyota) 568
192. Commentary on Asaṅga's Vajracchedikābhāṣya (Vasubandhu) (360) 570
193. Viśeṣacintibrahmaparipṛcchāśāstra (Vasubandhu) (360) 570
194. Vyākhyāyukti (Vasubandhu) (360) 570
195. Vādavidhi (Vasubandhu) (360) (Anacker) 570
196. Pañcaskandhakaprakaraṇa (Vasubandhu) (360) (Anacker) 574
197. Karmasiddhiprakaraṇa (Vasubandhu) (360) (Anacker) 578
198. Dharmadharmatāvibhāgavṛtti (360) (Anacker) 588
199. Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārabhāṣya (Vasubandhu) (Anacker) 596

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200. Madhyāntavibhāgabhāṣya (Vasubandhu) (360) (Anacker) 610
201. Mahāyānasaṃgrahabhāṣya (Vasubandhu) (Anacker) 627
202. Triṃśikākārikā (Vasubandhu) (360) (Anacker) 638
203. Viṃśatikā and Vṛtti thereon (Vasubandhu) (Anacker) 640
204. Trisvabhāvanirdeśa (Vasubandhu) (360) (Anacker) 644
205. Bodhicittotpādasūtra(śāstra) (Vasubandhu) (B. S. Bhiksu) 647
206. Nyāyānusāra (Saṃghabhadra) (380) (Cox) 650
207. Abhidharmasamayapradīpikā (Saṃghabhadra) (Cox) 716

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ENDNOTES 717

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The following Volume constitutes the second in a series devoted to Buddhist philosophy. It takes up more or less where its predecessor, Volume Seven of this Encyclopedia, leaves off, around the beginning of the second century A.D. This is a period still not well understood, with a good deal of scholarly disagreement remaining about many aspects of the history and thought of the period. As merely one example, it remains a debated point whether there were one or two Vasubandhus, with respected scholars taking both sides of the issue. The Editor of the present Volume makes no claim to expertise on such issues. Where reputable scholars disagree it is difficult to know which way to turn when attempting to summarize the history and beliefs of the period. We have tried to utilize the most up-to-date scholarship known to us at the time of writing, with full realization that tomorrow new evidence or better arguments may settle such issues definitively in the minds of scholars. When this happens, the treatment here will evidently become out of date. Since given the plan of the entire Encyclopedia we are more or less committed to presenting as consistent an account as possible of the history of Indian philosophical thought, citing experts known to us on points that seem debatable.

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It will be evident to the reader of what follows that there remains a good deal to be done in bringing to light the thought of the Buddhists of the present period. A large number of texts are essentially unexplored by scholars in the Western world, at least. The Editor of the present Volume, being unable to read the languages of much excellent scholarship--Chinese, Japanese and Russian, e.g.--and whose facility in European languages is halting, has been forced to rely on publications in English for the most part, although he has tried to become acquainted with some of the material available in French and German. Furthermore, he is not conversant with Tibetan, the language in which quite a bit of Buddhist literature is primarily and in some cases solely available. Fortunately others have conveyed to the English-reading public some of the most important findings of those writing in other languages. Nevertheless, these failings underline the point that our attempt here to deal with the scholarship on Indian philosophy has serious limitations, and that improvements on it by those whose linguistic abilities are greater, or who number more than the single person who has tried to put the present account together, are clearly called for.

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Thanks are due to various sources of funding that helped make the present volume possible: in particular, grants from the Smithsonian Institution, the American Institute of Indian Studies, and the National Endowment for the Humanities contributed to the overall effort. We owe our gratitude to those scholars, living and dead, whose understanding of the contents of the works summarized here is utilized. In particular, I wish to thank Stefan Anacker and Christian Lindtner for their generous assistance and for helpful comments on sections of the manuscript, though they are in no way responsible for the mistakes that have inevitably crept into the results.

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May 1997 KARL H. POTTER

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INTRODUCTION

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1. AUTHOR UNKNOWN (1st c. B.C.), Ṣaṭpāramitā. According to Akira Hirakawa, "it probably consisted of a description of the six perfections" and was "probably compiled in the first century B.C.E., i.e. before the Christian era. Its title in Chinese is Liu po-lo-mi ching. It is quoted in 17.Kāśyapaparivarta.72

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2. AUTHOR UNKNOWN (1st c. A.D.?), Bodhisattvapiṭaka Chinese P'u-sa tsang-ching, also quoted in 17.Kāśyapaparivarta. Its contents are not known, though several later works appear to have been based on it.73

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3. AUTHOR UNKNOWN (1st c.A.D.), Triskandhadharmaparyāya. Chinese San-p'in ching. The work is related to 27.Ugradattaparipṛcchā,74 and dealt with such topics as stūpa-worship, confession to the Buddha of one's wrongdoings, transference of merit, etc.75

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4. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, Kātyāyanavadānasūtra (1st c. A.D.?). This sūtra is mentioned by Nāgārjuna in 33.Madhyamakakārikā 13.7. Jacques May says that "the antinomy between substantialism and nihilism...was formally expressed in the Kātyāyana-avadāna-sūtra".76

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5. AUTHOR UNKNOWN (100 A.D.), Aṣṭasāhasrikā(prajñāpāramitāsūtra).77 "This work, which exists in several closely-related versions...seems to have attained its earliest version some time between 100 B.C.E. and 50 A.D.."78 A.K.Warder (who also provides a brief summary) attempts to pick out themes that represent a departure from Abhidharma texts of a similar date. He speculates that the Sinhalese commentaries and this text "seem to be contemporary in origin and probably developed in deliberate opposition to one another", for "the writer of the (Aṣṭa-) wished to attack the conceptions of the abhidharma commentators".79 Indeed, the Aṣṭa regularly asserts that all factors are without essential nature (asvabhāva), and draws the conclusion we find in Nāgārjuna's works, such that no one is bound, no one freed, that all such contrasts fail to apply since all factors are empty. To understand this is to gain "perfection of understanding" (Conze's translation of prajñāpāramitā). The Bodhisattva who gains that perfection is called tathāgata, "thus-gone", for his "thusness" is gone just as each factor, properly understood, has been "gone" all along.

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Summary by Robert F. Olson⁸⁰

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"The stated purpose of the Perfection of Insight as a teaching is essentially the same as that of Nāgārjuna--getting rid of attachment: 'This dharma is taught for the sake of not-taking-hold (anudgraha) of any dharma--yet the world carries on taking-hold...This perfection of insight is presented for a great purpose: for [bringing about] non-acquisition (aparigraha), for [bringing about] non-addiction (anabhiniveśa).'"

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"Such a program aims at the elimination of a mode of experience, that is, experience qualified by attachment. The goal is a detached mode of knowing--perfect insight or enlightenment--which is described in negative terms: 'The Tathāgatas' non-attachment knowing (asaṅgajñāna) is indeed perfect insight...Non-apprehension (anupalambha) of any dharma is the perfection of insight. Thus it is said that when there is no idea (saṃjñā), name (nāman), designation (prajñapti), or conventional language (vyavahāra)--then [there is] perfect insight...This is that perfection of insight--no supposition (manyamānatā) about any dharma at all.'"

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"From this we gather that the unattached mode of knowing real things (dharmas) is a mode of knowing without conceptualization. Insofar, then, as any real thing is conceived or talked about, it is known in the attached mode and is thereby falsified. Dharmas or dharmatā (real-thing-hood, the nature of reality) as conceived, schematized (for example, in abhidharma thought), and talked about are fabrications (kalpanā)."

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"For those dharmas are not there in the way that untaught, simple people are addicted to them...The way they are not there is the way they are there. Thus they are not-being-here (avidyamāna), so they are called ignorance (avidyā). Untaught, simple people are addicted to them. All dharmas, not being there, are fabricated (kalpita) by them. Having fabricated they are attached to the two extremes (existence and non-existence, etc.) and neither know

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nor see those dharmas (as they really are)...Having fabricated them they become addicted to the two extremes. Having become addicted, and relying on that source as [a basis of] apprehension, they fabricate past dharmas, future dharmas, present dharmas. Having fabricated these they become addicted to name and form (the five bundles¹)...Fabricating all those dharmas which are not there they neither know nor see the Path as it really is...They do not go forth from the triple world. They do not wake up to the true end (bhūtakoti, i.e. ultimate reality)."

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¹ Olson translates "skandha" as "bundle". In the present volume we are translating the term as "aggregate". To avoid confusion we replace Olson's translation by ours for the remainder of this section.

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"Attachment is by means of both name (nāman) and sign (nimitta)...[Thinking] 'form and the other aggregates are empty'--this is attachment. (If) one entertains the ideas 'past dharmas' with regard to past dharmas, 'future dharmas' with regard to future dharmas, 'present dharmas' with regard to present dharmas--this is attachment.'"

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"The term 'dharmas' here is necessarily ambiguous. Its basic function is to designate something real or valid. Thus dharmatā refers to the nature of all that is real, what constitutes actuality. But 'dharma' is itself a word, and when dharmas are named--form, consciousness, bodhisattva, nirvāṇa, or whatever--they are totally within the sphere of the attached mode. It is in this sense that 'all dharmas are made up by fabrication.' At the same time the terms 'dharma' and 'dharmatā' are used to refer to what is ultimately real, apart from fabrication: 'All dharmas are talked about only by means of names, only by means of [linguistic] transaction (vyavahāra). But the transaction is nowhere, is out of nowhere, is not a transaction at all: all dharmas are free of transaction, free of talk, not transacted, not talked about.'"

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"The skill-in-means (upāyakauśalya) of the bodhisattva is both to perceive signs--the images, and names mentally abstractable from experience--and to develop his awareness of the signlessness of reality as it is ultimately. This is an expression of the doctrine of the two truths, conventional and ultimate, applied in a way which reveals the bodhisattva to be a being 'in this world but not of it.' It is this skill-in-means which enables him to operate in the two modes simultaneously. However, because he does remain in the unattached mode, he is not karmically bound to those experiences which are normally in the sphere of atachment: 'He cultivates, devotes himself to, and honors forms, sounds, odors, tastes, touches--but he does so because, in fact, he has 'overcome', (abhibhūya) these, he has no attachment or objective supports (ālambana) and his acts thus arise out of skill-in-means."

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"Conventional or transactional truth includes the entire realm of discourse, not only what is invalid in relation to Buddhist discourse but Buddhist discourse as well: 'In reality no distinction or difference between [any of] these dharmas can be apprehended (na upalabhyate). As talk they are described by the Tathāgata..."empty," or "signless," or "wishless," or "without formation," or "non-arising," or "without birth," or "non-existence," or "dispassion," or "cessation," or "nirvāṇa"--these are [just] talked about...All dharmas whatever are beyond talk (anabhilāpya)."

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"'Perfection of insight'--this is only name-giving. And [the possibility of validly asserting:] 'that name is this [actual thing]' cannot be apprehended. We say that the name has only speech as its object-of-reference, while that perfection of insight is neither found nor apprehended: just as it is a name, just so is it perfection of insight; just as perfection of insight is, just so is the name. A duality of dharmas here is neither found nor apprehended."

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"The actual references of the word 'perfection-of-insight' is not to a real thing but to a speech-thing, verbalized reality--or as the commentary says, the term just reflects the discrimination (vikalpapratibimbaka) of the attached mode. The real thing which is being talked about, that is, the state of perfect insight, is not capable of comparison with the name or concept, since names can only be compared with names--and it is only when there are no names that the reality of perfect insight is found. Even the negative language associated with ultimate truth has finally to be seen in this light: 'Non-arising (anutpāda) appears to you to be talked about, but this same non-arising is [only] talk...Form is unthinkable and so are the other aggregates. [When a bodhisattva does not even entertain the idea "form is unthinkable," he proceeds in the perfection of insight."

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"The nonattached mode of knowing is present when one

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'proceeds but does not arrive at [the considerations] "I proceed" and "I will proceed" because all dharmas are neither arrived at nor depended upon [in reality]. This is the bodhisattvas' samādhi called 'non-dependency upon any dharma (sarvadharma-anupādāna)'. This mode is spoken of as 'standing in emptiness', which is where the Tathāgata stood and where all those who follow him should stand--precisely nowhere at all--because his mind was not fixated (apratiṣṭhamānasa) by any conceptualized dharma or consideration."

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"The inevitable conclusion is that what is so for the unattached mode has nothing to do with understanding, hence the paradoxic rejoinder by Subhūti to those who find the teaching on the perfection of insight difficult to understand: 'It can't be understood, it can't be understood (na vijñāyate)...for in it nothing at all is pointed out, nothing at all is learned.' And as there is no dharma at all pointed out, illuminated, or communicated no one will ever gain the perfection of insight from Subhūti's teaching of it."

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"Looked at from this paradoxic angle, that is, from the point of view of ultimate truth, all doxa--the points of view of transactional truth--are equally mere fabrications, none of which can be said to be even relatively adequate to express or describe perfect insight, since the latter is not "available" for comparison with its linguistic descriptions. We are apparently no closer to a possible link between conceptuality and enlightenment, intelligibility and nirvāṇa. But from the very discontinuity between the two, there emerges an interesting corollary: while on the one hand the real and the fictive, or fabricative, cannot be distinguished because distinguishing is itself conceptual, on the other hand what fabrication, discriminations, concepts really are is, in fact, the perfection of insight."

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"This perfection of insight cannot be taught or learned or distinguished or considered or reflected upon by means of the aggregates or by means of the elements (dhātu) or by means of the sense-fields (āyatana). The reason for this is the isolation (viviktatva) of all dharmas, the absolute isolation of all dharmas...But the perfection of insight is not to be understood apart from the aggregates, etc. The reason for this is that it is just the very aggregates, etc., which are empty, isolated, quieted. For thus are the perfection of insight and the aggregates, etc.: a non-duality which is without division and cannot be apprehended because of its emptiness...its isolation...and hence its being quieted."

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"This nondual nature is referred to in quasi-positive terms as 'suchness' (tathatā): The Tathāgata knows form (and each of the aggregates) as suchness...The suchness of the aggregates is the suchness of the world; the suchness of the world is the suchness of all dharmas...This is all just one suchness which has left behind the manifold [states] of existence and non-existence, because it is not one, not many, not disappearing, without modification, without duality, undivided...This one suchness of all real things is also identical with perfect insight, the state of enlightenment...Because of the boundlessness of objective supports (ālambana; intended object), this perfection of insight is a boundless perfection. Because of the boundlessness of sentient beings this perfection of insight is a boundless perfection. Because all dharmas are without a beginning, middle, or end this perfection of insight is a boundless perfection."

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"This absence of own-being (svabhāva) in beings should be known as the nature of the perfection of insight. The absence of own-being (that is, independent self-existence) in beings demonstrates the absence of it in the perfection of insight. Similarly, their isolation, unthinkability, indestructible nature, and the fact that they are not in the process of becoming enlightened--all demonstrate the same for the perfection of insight."

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"If then the nature of reality is not different from enlightenment, then the nature of reality must share the unattached, nondepending, nonapprehending character of enlightenment. A hint of this can be seen in two of the terms often associated (as above) with śūnya (empty), namely, vivikta (isolated), and śānta (quieted). Both of these seem to have their origin in the language of meditation proper: the isolation or separation of the meditator from his conceptual and emotional 'connectedness' with his normal social world, followed by his development of inner quiet or tranquillity (śamatha, upaśama, etc.). With the Perfection of Insight tradition these subjective aspects of disconnectedness and tranquillity are said to be the ultimate nature of all real things."

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"The ultimate nature of reality shares in the disconnectedness which characterizes the perfection of insight. Since this insight is unattached knowing, the Tathāgatas 'demonstrate Dharma to beings for the sake of non-clinging (aśleṣa)...The non-connection

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(asambandha) of form (and the other aggregates) is the non-clinging of form...The non-connection of form is form's lack of origination and cessation...In this way non-clinging comes to be, as a result of knowing and seeing that all dharmas are not clinging, not connected.'"

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"This common nature leads to further implications. Perfect insight is not different from the real nature of those characteristics of the attached mode which, conventionally, the perfection of insight is supposed to eliminate. This is the perfection of non-discipline (avinaya), because there is no apprehension of past, future, and present goals...This is the perfection of nonaffliction (asaṃkleśa), because there is no own-being to greed, anger, and delusion...This is the perfection of dispassion, because there is no falseness in any dharma...This is the perfection of non-arising, because there is no discrimination in any dharma...This is the perfection of non-discrimination, because of its identity with discrimination (vikalpasamatā)...This is the perfection of suffering, because the nature of dharmas is like space...Distracted thoughts are thoughts distracted from the nature of dharmas (dharmatā). But such thoughts when seen as they really are by insight are without [intrinsic] characteristics and are in reality not distracted. Indeed, those thoughts are by nature brightly clear (prakṛtiprabhāsvara).'"

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"After all, if it is all dharmas which share the same nature, suchness, with the perfection of insight, then such unwholesome (akuśala) dharmas as anger, delusion, discrimination, distraction, suffering, etc. are not to be excluded."

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"Finally, there is the clear implication that it is the given nature of things which is identical with the perfection of insight, and therefore this insight is not something which has yet to be attained by the striving bodhisattva. Enlightenment, in short, is what the bodhisattva already really is. The [meditative] actualization (bhāvanā) of the perfection of insight is an actualization of space. Homage should be paid to those bodhisattvas who put this armor on, for he who fastens on his armor for the sake of beings seeks to be armed with space...For the sake of beings who are [themselves] like space, like the dharma-realm, he seeks to be armed, he seeks to become fully enlightened. He seeks to liberate space, he seeks to get rid of space...He will make efforts about space, about wide-open space, who thinks of being trained in or of making efforts about the perfection of insight...Deep is the perfection of insight: it is not actualized by anything, for no one actualizes it...nor is there anything to be actualized...anywhere. The actualization of the perfection of insight is actualization of space, of all dharmas, of non-attachment, of the limitless, of non-existence, of non-acquiring."

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"The nature of things is not something which requires actualization: space is empty without needing to develop that emptiness. In exactly the same way the perfection of insight is not in need of development. The implication is evident that the essential original nature of thought (citta), brightly clear, as well as the nature of things in general, is unattached knowing, the perfection of insight which constitutes buddhahood: 'The nature of all dharmas is complete purity...All dharmas have attained nirvāṇa, [and hence] are identical with suchness...All dharmas are noble arhats, completely purified by nature...All dharmas are enlightenment because they cause one to be aware of the buddha-knowing (buddhajñāna).'"

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6. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, Ren ben yu sheng jing.⁸¹

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This and the following nine works were translated by An Shih-kao into Chinese between 150 and 170 A.D. The brief summaries given of works numbered 6-15 are provided by E. Zürcher. None of them have, so far as we know, been translated into Western languages; it is not even clear what an appropriate retranslation from the Chinese of the original Sanskrit titles might be. Zürcher elsewhere⁸² characterizes An Shih-kao's translations thus: "As translations, they are generally of the poorest quality. It is somewhat surprising that later Chinese Buddhist bibliographers...have praised the products of An Shih-kao and his school as masterpieces and classical examples of the art of translating. It is hard to see on what criteria their appreciation was based...Most archaic versions are actually no more than free paraphrases or extracts of the original texts, teeming with obscure and not yet standardized technical expressions, and coated in a language which is chaotic to the extreme and not seldom quite unintelligible..."

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Zürcher provides the following description of the gist of these and the other nine works: "To judge from the nature of the scriptures translated, the two main subjects of his teachings seem to have been (a) the system of mental exercises commonly called

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dhyāna (ch'an) in Chinese sources, but which is more adequately covered by the term 'Buddhist yoga', comprising such practices as the preparatory technique of counting the respirations leading to mental concentration (ānāpānasmṛti), the contemplation of the body as being perishable, composed of elements, impure and full of suffering; the visualization of internal and external images of various colours, etc.; (b) the explanation of numerical categories such as the six āyatana, the five skandha, the four ṛddhipāda, the five bala, the four smṛtyupasthāna, etc.; short sūtras devoted to such classifications form the bulk of the oeuvre attributed to him."⁸³

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7. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, Yiqie liu she shou yin jing.⁸⁴

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"Very short text explaining the way to extirpate the Impurities (āsrava)."

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8. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, Si di jing.⁸⁵

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"Exposition of the Four Noble Truths."

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9. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, Ben xiang yi zhi jing.⁸⁶

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"Causal series leading from 'bad company', viz. 'unbelief', 'wrong thoughts'...to 'desire', and the opposite series, leading from 'good company' to 'emancipation'."

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10. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, Lou fenbu jing.⁸⁷

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"Scholastic enumeration of the Impurities, Sense-desires, Feelings, Perceptions, etc., together with their causal factors and their bad consequences."

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11. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, Pu fayi jing.⁸⁸

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"Various series of 12, 20, 16...etc. factors, every series being either conducive or obstructive to Emancipation."

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12. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, Ba zheng dao jing.⁸⁹

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"The eight bad ways of action and the eight ways of action that constitute the Eightfold Path."

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13. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, Da anban shouyi jing.⁹⁰

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"Treatise describing the practice of 'Respiratory Concentration' (ānāpāna-smṛti), together with a commentary that has become inextricably mixed up with the text."

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14. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, *Yin chi ru jing*.⁹¹ "Scholastic compendium dealing with sense-perception, the four bases of super-natural power, the five powers, etc."

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15. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, *Chanxing faxiang jing*.⁹² "Very short text containing a list of themes for contemplation."

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16. AUTHOR UNKNOWN (125), *Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodanasūtra*.⁹³

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17. AUTHOR UNKNOWN (125), *Kāśyapaparivartasūtra*.⁹⁴ In this *sūtra* the Buddha reviews for Mahākāśyapa the conditions that cause backsliding, that lead to wisdom and the growth of virtue, and that indicate the marks of a Bodhisattva. He describes the middle way between extremes, dependent origination, the emptiness of things, but warns one not to become attached to emptiness. The truth is indicated by a number of pithy illustrations. Notable are examples to show that there is no such thing as a "mind", and that supposing that there is breeds karma. A section, also found in several other texts, alludes to the defection of the "five hundred", presumably the Mahāsāmghikas, and how they were wooed back into the fold by magical monks sent by the Buddha, monks who taught the defecters the correct understanding of emptiness.

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18. AUTHOR UNKNOWN (125), *Akṣobhya(tathāgatasya)vyūhasūtra*.⁹⁵ This work tells of a pupil of the Buddha who resolved to seek to avoid the way of a *śrāvaka* or *pratyekabuddha* and become the Bodhisattva Akṣobhya (meaning "Immovable"). Gautama confirms that Akṣobhya will indeed become a *tathāgata* and there is great rejoicing. The Buddha goes on to describe the pleasures of the heaven attained by Akṣobhya and the power of his vows.

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19. AUTHOR UNKNOWN (125), *Drumakinnararājaparipṛcchāsūtra*.⁹⁶

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Summary by Paul Harrison

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"(T)he DKP is a scripture which deals with the perfections or transcendent qualities (*pāramitā*) within a narrative framework in which a leading role is taken, not by a *bhikṣu* or *bodhisattva*, as is customary, but by a non-human being, a *kinnara* king whose name is Druma (which means "tree"). Kinnaras...are a class of mythical beings who are sometimes depicted as having the heads of horses and the bodies of human beings (or vice versa). They possess a special aptitude, which they share with *gandharvas*, for making music; and their celestial music-making is of great power and beauty. In fact, music and sound in general play an important part in this text...Music symbolises the syren call of the senses which only highly advanced *bodhisattvas* and Buddhas have transcended entirely, and at the same time, it stands as a metaphor for the elusive and ephemeral nature of all phenomena, which are in the final analysis as ungraspable as echoes; in short, it stands for "emptiness"...King Druma shows special understanding of the emptiness of sensory experience, and his eventual awakening to Buddhahood is predicted later in the work (Chap. 7). The doctrine of emptiness is alluded to or treated extensively at various points, and the perfections are also expounded systematically in Chap. 7, which, significantly, describes the six standard perfections in order, followed by *upāyakauśalya*, skill in the use of creative stratagems, which is presented more or less as a seventh perfection, although it is not designated as such. *Upāyakauśalya* is in fact one of the key doctrinal elements of the text. Other special features of the DKP are the dramatic richness of its narrative passages and its extensive section dealing with the way in which, and the reasons for which, women are to be reborn as men before they can achieve awakening (Chap. 9). One particularly interesting element is the protective mantra which appears in Chap. 15, possibly the first such formula to be transcribed and translated into Chinese. Another is the clear reference to the content of the 16. *Ajātaśatru-kaukṛtya-vinodana-sūtra* which appears in Chapter 12...It is in my experience very rare for one Mahāyāna sūtra to refer to another in this way--striking evidence, quite apart from their thematic links and the fact that they were both translated by Lokakṣema, that these two texts were produced or circulated in the same milieu."⁹⁷

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20. AUTHOR UNKNOWN (125), *Lokānuvartanasūtra*.⁹⁸

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Summary by Paul Harrison

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"The text falls, very roughly, into two halves. The first half deals with the Buddha's person, working item by item through the major events of his life (e.g. the birth of Rāhula) as well as its recurrent day-to-day activities (e.g., cleaning the teeth) to show that all these are part of a deliberately fostered illusion of humanity - that the true nature of the Buddha's being and his real attributes are quite different from those which he projects among men in order to further their salvations. Despite all appearances to the contrary, the Buddha remains above this world--he is 'supramundane' or 'transcendent' (*lokottara*). The second half of the sūtra addresses itself by and large to the Buddha's teaching, and once again, the truth about phenomena is contrasted with what the Buddha actually proclaimed during his ministry. The Buddha's teaching, like his person, is far more than it appears to be. It is in this 'ontological' section of the *LAn* that one finds expressed a doctrinal standpoint very similar to that of the early Prajñāpāramitā as set forth in the *Aṣṭasāhasrikā*, a standpoint which insists upon the 'emptiness' of all dharmas, their non-arising (the term *anutpattidharmakṣānti* occurs) and lack of own-being (*svabhāva*), the merely conventional validity of the *dharmadhātu*, and so on."

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21. AUTHOR UNKNOWN (125), *Pratyutpannabuddhasaṃmukhāvasthitasūtra*⁹⁹

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In Appendix A of his translation Paul Harrison reviews the textual history of various versions of this text. His conclusions are as follows: Lokakṣema and an Indian collaborator translated this work in 179 A.D. "In 208 the translation was completely revised, possibly by members of Lokakṣema's school..." It continued to be retranslated or abridged until by the beginning of the ninth century it had been

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translated into Tibetan "in a form...which differs considerably from that which the Chinese versions reveal." In the next few paragraphs we provide selections from Harrison's section on "The structure of the PraS", pp. xxvii-xxxiii of his book in which the translation appears.

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Summary by Paul Harrison

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"The PraS opens with a long *nidāna* (1A-I) describing the assembling of the Buddha's audience in the Veṇuvana outside Rājagṛha; pride of place is given to eight bodhisattvas...each from one of the eight major cities of the Buddha's world. Bhadrapāla...asks the Buddha which *samādhi* bodhisattvas should practice in order to acquire them (1J-Y)..the Buddha states that the *samādhi* required is the *pratyutpanna-samādhi*..(2B-J)...the vividness and yet the ultimate unreality of that which is perceived during the *samādhi* are emphasized (3A-O). In Chap. 4 the Buddha outlines some of the practical and ethical prerequisites for the practice of the *samādhi*, while in Chap. 5 he stresses the need for reverence for the preacher of Dharma (5A), and describes the great efficacy of the *pratyutpanna-samādhi*...(5B-E). Chap. 6 deals with the considerable loss to be suffered by those future followers of the Buddha who will refuse to accept and practice the *samādhi*...Great is the merit to be derived from believing in this teaching, the Buddha solemnly avows to his audience (6A-J).

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"The Buddha continues to praise in the most fulsome terms the excellence of those who take up the *samādhi* (7A-G), before returning in Chap. 8 to the practice of the *samādhi* itself. Some quite 'philosophical'...passages deal with various points of doctrine--relating mainly to the perception of phenomena--which bodhisattvas should attempt to internalise in their practice of the *samādhi* (8A-K). Following this the Buddha outlines the qualities--moral attitudinal, practical, social--required of bodhisattvas who have given up the household life...(9A-M). Subsequently the Buddha deals in turn with those things required of Mahāyāna bhikṣuṇīs (10A-C), householder *bodhisattvas*...(11A-D), and Mahāyāna *upāsikās* (12A-c).

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"Bhadrapāla...asks if (the Buddha's teaching) will continue to circulate in Jambudvīpa after the Buddha's demise (13A). The Buddha replies that the *samādhi* will disappear sometime after his Parinirvāṇa, but that it will re-appear in the 'last five hundred years' to be taken up and propagated by a few faithful souls (13B). Moved to tears of joy by this revelation, Bhadrapāla and his seven bodhisattva companions undertake to preach the *samādhi* in the terrible 'last five hundred years' (13C-F). They are joined by five hundred other followers, and beseech the Buddha to entrust the *samādhi* to the eight bodhisattvas (13G-H). The Buddha responds with one of his famous similes (13I), and Ānanda, on cue as ever, asks in verse what the reason is for this (13J). By way of reply the Buddha recapitulates in verse...(13K). The eight bodhisattvas rejoice over these revelations...(14A).

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"Bhadrapāla then enquires after further prerequisites for correct practice, and the Buddha enumerates four (14B), after which he goes on to detail the many worldly advantages to be derived from the *samādhi*, including the capacity to acquire, even in one's dreams, hitherto unknown teachings (14C-J)....Further 'philosophical' passages follow, in which the correct practice of the four *smṛtyupasthāna* is related to that of the *samādhi*, and various statements are made concerning the nature of phenomena and the proper attitude to them (15J-N).

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"Bhadrapāla next asks the Buddha what things will enable the bodhisattva to acquire the *samādhi* successfully (16K). The Buddha details another series of attributes, attitudes, practices, etc. (16L-V), and then recalls the prediction of his own awakening during the time of Dīpaṃkara...(17A-B)...

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"Bhadrapāla again asks how bodhisattvas should cultivate the *samādhi*, and the Buddha in reply discusses the required understanding of 'all dharmas' and the proper attitude to them, with reference to the correct practice of the *smṛtyupasthānas* (18A-F)...

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"Chap. 19 contains further instructions on correct practice (19A-B), and lists eight *dharmas* which bodhisattvas engaged in the *samādhi* will acquire (19C)...In addition to these eight *dharmas*, bodhisattvas will acquire the ten powers of a Tathāgata (20A-K), the four assurances (21A-E) and the eighteen *dharmas* exclusive to a Buddha (22A-B).

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"At the beginning of Chap. 23 the Buddha propounds four acts of 'rejoicing' which bodhisattvas should formally rehearse with regard to the *samādhi* (23A-D). The merit from this, which is to be

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'dedicated' to others for the sake of perfect awakening, is described as very great indeed (23E-F)...The Buddha then tells how the *samādhi* should be preserved for future believers by being copied out and stored away...(24A-B)...

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"Finally, the Buddha addresses himself to Bhadrapāla and his seven companions, their five hundred followers, and the rest of his audience (26B)...He tells Bhadrapāla that the *samādhi* is to be mastered and taught to others so that it will endure (26D)..."

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22. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, *Dousha jing*.¹⁰⁰

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23. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, *Wenshushili wen pusa shu jing*.¹⁰¹

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24. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, *Śūraṅgama(samādhi)sūtra*.¹⁰²

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Pasadika translates the title of this work as "Contemplation Leading to Power", Lamotte as "Le Concentration de la Marche Héroique".

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Rather than attempt a summary, we provide an excerpt from a discussion of the opening topic by George Teschner.¹⁰³

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"In the beginning of the *Śūraṅgama Sūtra*, the Buddha asks Ānanda where the perceptions of the eyes and the activities of the mind are. Ānanda replies that the eyes are on the face and the mind is within the body...Ānanda's reply has erroneously located mind within body and body within the external world, whereas, for the *Śūraṅgama*, both body and the world are phenomena of the mind. If the mind is within the body, the mind should see the inside of the body, the *Śūraṅgama Sūtra* reasons...Since the mind does not see the interior of the body, the relationship between mind and body cannot be conceived of as an observer within a room looking through a window at what is outside. Ānanda then argues that the mind may be like a lamp placed outside a house. What lies outside is illuminated whereas what lies within is hidden in darkness...The Buddha uses two arguments against this position...(I)f consciousness is placed outside the body, then there seems to be no way of explaining how each could be aware of the internal states of the other...Similarly, in placing consciousness outside the body, Ānanda then is unable to account for the perspectival character of each individual's perception...

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"Ānanda...accounts for why there is not an awareness of the body by saying the body is like an almost perfectly transparent bowl placed over the eyes...The Buddha objects that although the eye is able to see through the bowl, it is, nevertheless, still able to see the bowl, whereas mind, in the same way, is not able to see the sense organs.

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"If the mind cannot see the inside of the body and also cannot be outside it since it interacts with the body, then Ānanda concludes it must be in some sense between the body and external things. The Buddha asks where is this place between? If it is between external things and the body, in the sense that it is just beneath the surface of the body, then it is within the body and should see the inside. If it is between, in the sense of having a location among external things, then it should see things, including the body, from an unchanging perspective. If the mind is between...then the mind must consist of a duality of which one part is able to interact with the conscious perceiver and the other part with the insentient object. The question then becomes, how could these two opposing realities combine in the same being?

v8.c66.113

"The difficulty throughout the dialogue is that Ānanda is attempting to conceive of the relation between mind and body according to some spatial relation. To say that the mind is inside the body does not accord with the nature of perception as interpreted by Ānanda; to say it is outside the body cannot explain how the mind and body interact or have experiences in common; to say that it is in between would suffer from both the foregoing difficulties...

v8.c66.114

The entire polemic is a *reductio ad absurdum* argument. Ānanda is unable to consider a reality which is without location but which, nevertheless, enters into a relationship with the body and external objects. In order to do this, he must in the *Śūraṅgama* be brought to understand that the reality of spatial relationships is a phenomenon of the mind and that there are no spatial relationships in themselves..."

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