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The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies v9.c76: Buddhaghosa (425)

The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies v9.c76

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Contents

Buddhaghosa (425)

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We know little about this important writer, the greatest known Pāli commentator and exegetist" He seems to have been born in India and was brought up in Brāhmaṇic tradition, being converted to Buddhism, peregrinating to South India and eventually finding his way to Lanka (i.e., Ceylon or modern Sri Lanka). About his date, Law reports that tradition places him in Ceylon during the reign of Mahānāma, author of the Mahāvaṃsa, an important source for Buddhist chronology and belief. Mahānāmas headship at Anuradhapura is generally agreed to cover the period 409-421 or -431 A.D. Law discusses this tradition critically. He notes that all of Buddhaghosa s references are to persons whose dates seem to be no later than the fourth century A.D., and that one of his works, Samantapāsādika, was translated into Chinese in 489, so he must have been prior to that date. Law concludes that it is practically certain that Buddhaghosa was in Ceylon during Mahānāma s reign, thus fixing his date in the beginning of the fifth century A.D.'

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Law considers the evidence that can be gleaned from Buddhaghosa's writings concerning his place of origin and what Buddhaghosa seems to know about the geography of India. He concludes that it is still unclear whether Buddhaghosa stemmed from North or South India. "It is certain that he was an Indian who went to Ceylon from the country of Cole in South India when Kāñcipura was its capital."65 But he seems to have only a dim understanding of the geographical locations of key places. On the other hand he is well-trained in Patañjali's Yoga, and is evidently acquainted with Nyāya. He also shows sound understanding of Pāṇini's grammar, which he cites several times in his writings. Law remarks that he nowhere shows his knowledge of the Upaniṣads. There is nowhere in his writings evidence of his acquaintance with the two great Sanskrit

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epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa." '

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While still in South India he apparently wrote a work called Ñānodaya which is now lost. He refers occasionally to languages of India including a number of Dravidian dialects. We do not know precisely when he left for Sri Lanka, apparently urged there by one of his teachers. But having arrived there he must have spent some time studying the (now-lost) Sinhalese commentaries on the Abhidharma Buddhist texts, eventually writing commentaries on several texts. "The Visuddhimagga and other works of Buddhaghosa are full of personal reminiscences" of Ceylon: the tradition of the kings, the tradition of the monasteries and fellow monks, the social and religious life of the people, the shrines and monasteries, and the arts and crafts.

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Beside the works summarized below, Buddhaghosa is held to be the author of commentaries on the Dīgha-, Majjhima-, Saṃyutta- and Aṅguttara-nikāyas. These were written after the Visuddhimagga, since that work is referred to in them. He also is supposed by some to have written a commentary on the material concerning the prātimokṣa. Commentaries on still other parts of the Pāli canon (e.g., on the Dhammapada, Jātaka, Khuddakapāṭha and Suttanipāta), are ascribed to Buddhaghosa. Scholars disagree on most of these ascriptions.

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47. BUDDHAGHOSA, Visuddhimagga

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After moving to Ceylon Buddhaghosa's works were written, according to Bimala Chum Law, in the following order: Visuddhimagga; commentaries on the first four Nikāyas; and then the commentaries on the seven Abhidharma books, following their usual order. However, as argued below, it seems unlikely that the seven commentaries were written by the same author as the composer of the Visuddhimagga.

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The Visuddhimagga is not a commentary, but a compendious account of Abhidhamma Buddhism as a whole, based, according to Buddhaghosa himself, on the (now lost) Sinhalese Aṭṭhakathās. Visuddhimagga is a Pāli word meaning "path of purity"; the corresponding Sanskrit term would be viśuddhimārga. In our summary below we give technical terms in their Pāli spelling.

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"E" references are to the edition by Dwarikadas Sastri, Varanasi 1977. "T" indicates the translation by Nanamoli in two volumes (Shambhala, 1976). Section headings correspond to those in T.

Part I: Virtue (śīla)

Chapter 1: Description of Virtue

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1-15 (E3-7; T1-6) When a man of insight is established in virtue, Develops awareness and insight, Then as an ardent and wise bhikkhu He untangles this tangle. (*Saṃyuttanikāya* 1.13)

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The "tangle" is the network of thirst which arises again and again as craving for one's own needs and awarenesses as well as those of others. It is the disentangling of this tangle which is the path of purification (*visuddhimagga*). A "man of insight" is a living being who possesses the understanding that arises from karma by way of the three causes mentioned here, viz., virtue, awareness and insight. Here "awareness" means specifically that awareness involved in meditation. The bhikkhu is "ardent" in that he burns up the defilements, and he is "wise" in that he has the protective understanding guiding affairs. A *bhikkhu* is so-called because has sees fear (*bhayam ikkhati*) of rebirth.

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How these three causes relate to a series of distinctions found elsewhere in the tradition is now explained: how virtue, awareness and insight constitute the threefold training, the avoidance of extremes through the middle way, the abandoning of defilements, the reason for entering the states of stream-winner and the others.

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16-23 (14? in T) (E7-11; T6-9) What is virtue? There is virtue as volition (*cetanā*), one who refrains from killing and practises duties, and the others of the first seven of the ten courses of action. There is virtue as concomitant of awareness (*cetasika*) in the abandonment of covetousness, absence of ill-will and right view, the last three of the ten. There is virtue of restraint in five ways: by the rules of the community, by mindfulness, by knowledge, by patience, and by energy.

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The characteristic feature of virtue is "composing" consisting of being the locus of good factors and coordinating bodily actions. Its function is stopping misconduct and the achievement of blamelessness. Its manifestation is purity, and its proximate cause is conscience and shame.

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The benefits of virtuousness are listed in the *Dīghanikāya* as five: wealth, good name, entrance into an assembly of peers without fear, unconfusedness at death, happy rebirth. Other accounts are mentioned.

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25-161 (E1 4-7; T10-58) Now the kinds of virtue are classified according to different principles in nineteen different groupings:

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1. As that which has the feature of composing, as above.

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2. As of two kinds: doing what should be done and not doing what should not be done.

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3. Two kinds: good behavior and the beginning of a life of purity. The latter consists in the code of *bhikkhus* and *bhikkhunīs*, whereas the former involves the duties set out in the *Khandakas* (of the Vinaya).

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4. Two kinds: as abstinence and nonabstinence from killing, etc.

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5. Two kinds as dependence and nondependence. Dependence itself is of two kinds: through thirst and through false views.

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6. Two kinds as limited in time, or temporary, and as unlimited, or lifelong.

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7. Two kinds as limited and unlimited by gain, fame, relatives, limbs or life.

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8. Two kinds as worldly and otherworldly. The worldly is subject to contaminants, the otherworldly not.

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9. Three kinds, as inferior, middling and superior in intensity of awareness, energy, etc.

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10. Three kinds, as giving precedence to the self, giving precedence to the world, and giving precedence to the Dhamma.

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11. Three kinds, as adhered to--dependent virtues of the kind in #5 above--as not adhered to by those on the path, and as tranquilized, for those who have achieved the fruit of the path.

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12. Three kinds, as purified in one who has not committed a bad act or has made amends if he had, as impure--the reverse of the above--or as doubtful, in one who is not sure whether something he did was bad or how bad.

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13. Three kinds, viz., the four paths and the first three meditative fruits--as practised by those in training (seekers), by those not in training, i.e., by those who have become *arhats*, viz., adepts, and by those neither in training nor in training--the rest.

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14. Four kinds, as (a) that which partakes of destruction, (b) that which partakes of stagnation, (c) that which partakes of distinction, (d) that which partakes of penetration. The first has virtue mixed with bad, the second is for one contented with mere virtuousness, the third for one who has concentration as his goal, and the fourth for one who has disenchantment as his goal.

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15. Four kinds, of male monks, of nuns, of those not fully admitted (into the order), of the layman or householder.

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16. Four kinds: natural--belonging to Uttarakuru men, customary--according to the group's rules of conduct, necessary--required by nature, and born of prior causes--such as Mahākassapa and the Bodhisattva in his various births.

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17. Four kinds: the virtue of prātimokṣa restraint, the virtue of restraining the sense faculties, the virtue of purification of life, the virtuous use of the requisites. Each of these is explained at some length through quotes from Vibhaṅga, Mahāniddesa and other such works and copious illustrations through stories. The requisites include the monk's robe, alms food, his resting place, medicines. They are to be used for appropriate purposes only. Examples are given, and authorities.

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18. Five kinds according to the Paṭisambhidā classifications of virtue consisting of limited purification, unlimited purification, fulfilled purification, unadhered-to purification and tranquilized purification. The first applies to those not fully admitted to the order, the second to those who are fully admitted. The third is the virtue of magnanimous ordinary men who deal with good factors and have given up attachment to life. The fourth is the virtue of seekers, while the fifth is the virtue of the Tathāgatas pupils and of the self-enlightened, Tathāgatas and arhats.

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19. Five kinds of virtue as abandoning, refraining, willing, restraint and nontransgression. A lengthy passage from the Paṭisambhidā explains these.

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A section follows in which it is explained how virtue is defiled and how the defilement is purified. The exposition consists almost entirely of quotations from the Aṅguttaranikāya.

Chapter 2: Description of Ascetic Practice

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(E48-67; T59-83) Practices intended to perfect the virtues indicated in the preceding chapter are classified here into thirteen varieties: (1) wearing of rags, (2) wearing of the triple robe, (3) seeking alms-food, (4) from house to house, (5) one meal a day, (6) from a single bowl, (7) refusing seconds, (8) forest-dwelling, (9) at the roots of a tree, (10) in the open air, (11) or in a charnel ground, (12) sleeping wherever he happens to be, but otherwise (13) remaining in a sitting posture rather than lying down. These are further classified and discussed.

Part II: Concentration

Chapter 3: Taking a Subject for Meditation

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(68-72; T84-90) What is concentration? One-pointedness of mind. It is called "concentration" since it centers consciousness evenly and

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rightly on a single object. Its characteristic feature is nondistraction; its function is to eliminate distraction; it is manifested as nonwavering; its proximate cause is satisfaction.

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It may be classified in the following ways:

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1. As one kind, viz., nondistraction.

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2. As two kinds, as the practise of six kinds of mindfulness, and the unification of mind which follows in the first meditative state.

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3. As two kinds, worldly in the first three meditative levels, and otherworldly in relation to the noble beings.

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4. Two kinds, as accompanied by joy in the first two meditative levels, and without joy as accompaniment in the last two levels.

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5. Two kinds, accompanied by satisfaction in the first three levels and accompanied by equanimity in the last level.

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6. Three kinds, as inferior, middling and superior in development.

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7. Three kinds, with initial thought in the first meditative level, without initial thought but with sustained thought in the second, without either initial or sustained thought in the last three levels.

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8. Three kinds, as accompanied by joy in the first two levels, as accompanied by satisfaction in the first three levels, and as accompanied by equanimity in the last.

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9. Three kinds, as limited on the plane of service, exalted in the material and immaterial levels, and unlimited in connection with the noble persons.

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10. Four kinds, as (1) frustrating progress and difficult of understanding, (2) frustrating progress but easy of understanding, (3) satisfying progress but difficult of understanding, (4) satisfying progress and easy of understanding.

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11. Four kinds, as limited with a limited object, limited with an unlimited object, unlimited with a limited object, unlimited with an unlimited object. A "limited object" is one that is unfamiliar and not a condition for a higher meditative level, whereas an unlimited object is one that is well-developed and capable of being a condition for a higher level.

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12. Four kinds, according to the factors of the four meditative levels, viz. (1) the first level, having as factors initial and sustained thought, joy, satisfaction and concentration, (2) the second level, having as factors joy, satisfaction and concentration, (3) the third level, having satisfaction and concentration as factors, (4) the fourth level, having concentration and equanimity as factors.

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13. Four kinds, as partaking of destruction, partaking of stagnation, partaking of distinction and partaking of penetration.

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14. Four kinds, according to location in the desirous, material, immaterial or unlimited level.

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15. Four kinds, as making interest predominant, making energy predominant, making awareness predominant, making one-pointedness of mind predominant.

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16. Five kinds, according to the (alternate) classification of meditative levels into five (rather than four) sets of factors, by dividing what was called the second meditative level into two kinds, one involving the transcendence of initial thought and the other the transcendence of initial and sustained thought..

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(E72-88; T90-112) How should concentration be developed? Briefly, worldly concentration is to be developed by one established in completely purified virtue, having cut himself off from the ten impediments (viz., residence, family, wealth, class, building, travel, kin, illness, books and magic powers), who approaches a good friend and gets from him one of the forty subjects for meditation which suits his temperament. He should then go to a monastery favorable for concentration, sever the lesser impediments to concentration and follow the directions for development.

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The ten impediments are explained in detail with stories. The characteristics of a good friend are illustrated by references to traditions about teachers. Temperaments are classified into six (greedy, hating, confused, faithful, intelligent and speculative) or 14 if permuted by pairs and triplets. Some (specifically, Upatissa, author of Vimuttimagga) say that the first three kinds of temperament arise from previous habit, from the elements and humors expounded in the Aṭṭhakathās. But the correct view is that they arise from the predominance in a person's karmic stock of the particular qualities (greed, etc.) leading to rebirth. The opponent (in Upatissa's passage, above) appeals to nonexistent and contradictory laws about elements and humors, and the explanation offered can't handle those of faithful temperament. It is then explained what sort of appearance and conduct characterize those of each of the six temperaments.

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(E88-92; T112-118) The forty subjects for meditation can be understood in ten ways: 1. By enumeration, as ten meditative kasiṇas, ten foulnesses, ten memories, four sublime states, four immaterial subjects, one conceptual identification, and one determining. The ten kasiṇas are: earth, water, fire, air, blue, yellow, red, white, light and ethereal. The ten

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foulnesses are bloatedness, lividness, etc.--various stages found in a dead body. The ten memories are of the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Saṅgha, of virtue, generosity, deities, death, the body, breathing, and peace. The four sublime states are friendship, compassion, restraint and equanimity. The one conceptual identification is the identification of repulsive food. The one determining is the defining of the four elements.

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2. Which bring access only and which bring absorption: the former includes the ten kasiṇas, remembering to breathe, the repulsiveness of food and the defining of the four levels. The rest bring absorption.

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3. By the kind of meditative level brought: the ten kasiṇas and remembering to breathe bring all four levels. Meditation on the ten foulnesses plus the memory of body bring on the first level. The first three sublime states bring on the first three levels. The fourth sublime state and the four immaterial subjects bring on the fourth level.

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4. By what they overcome. There are two kinds of overcoming, (1) of factors and (2) of objects. Type (1) includes the sublime states, since they are required to reach the third and fourth level. Type (2) includes the four immaterial subjects, since for each the first of the kasiṇas has to be overcome, and for the others its predecessor has to be overcome.

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5. By extension and nonextension: only the ten kasiṇas are necessarily extended, the subjects of the rest need not be.

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6. By their objects: only twenty-two of the forty have corresponding supporting objects--the ten kasiṇas, the ten foul things, memory of breathing and of body. Only twelve have essential factors as supporting objects--eight of the ten memories (excluding the two just mentioned), the repulsiveness of food, the defining of the four levels, the formless states of consciousness and neither-identification-nor-nonidentification. The remaining six are not classifiable as either. Eight have mobile objects (some of the foul states, together with water, fire and air); the rest are immobile.

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7. By stage (bhūmi): the twelve (ten foul things, memory of body, repulsiveness of food) do not occur among the gods, and these plus memory of breathing do not occur in the Brahmaloka. Only the four immaterial states occur in the immaterial world. All occur among humans.

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8. By (the way of) grasping: nineteen are apprehended by sight (nine kasiṇas excluding air, ten foul things). Memory of body is grasped by sight or hearing (language) depending on which part of the body is in question. Memory of breathing is grasped by touch. The air kasiṇa is grasped by sight and touch. The remaining eighteen are grasped by language.

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9. By condition: the nine meditative kasiṇas excluding space are conditions for the immaterial states. All ten kasiṇas are conditions for higher faculties. Three sublime states are conditions for the last one. Each lower formless state is a condition for the next one. The neither-identification-nor-nonidentification formless state is a condition for cessation. All forty are conditions for satisfaction, for insight and for fortunate rebirths.

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10. As to suitability to temperament: the foul things and memory of body are for greedy folks; the sublime states and four color kasiṇas are for those who hate. Memory of breathing is a subject suitable for a deluded person or a speculative one. The first six memories are for faithful types. Memory of death, of peace, the defining of the four stages and repulsiveness of food are for all sorts of temperaments. But this is to put it in extreme terms--meditation on any of these should suppress greed, etc.

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(E92-94; T118-121) The procedures to be followed in seeking, receiving and practising meditation on any one of these forty topics is outlined.

Chapter 4: Description of the Earth Meditative Kasina

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(E95-99; T122-126) The meditator should go to a favorable abode. Eighteen defects of unfavorable abodes are described--too large, too new, dilapidated, too busy, etc. A favorable abode is one that is accessible but not too near; little frequented; free of physical distractions like wind, sun, flies; where food, lodging, robes, alms and medicine are available; where elder monks who are capable of explaining the meaning about which one is puzzled live. He should then cut his hair and nails, patch his clothes, and begin.

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(E99-101; T126-130) The meditator should cognize a sign of earth. At the outset he will want to construct a piece of earth for himself, avoiding the colors blue, yellow, red or white, either a fixed piece or a movable one either the size of a bushel or the size of a saucer. Sitting in front of it, he should consider the dangers of sense desires, the happiness connected to the special qualities of the Buddha, Dhamma and Saṅgha, and then should open his eyes not too wide nor too narrowly and meditate on the earth-sign. This sign is not to be confused with the color of the piece of earth in front; rather, he should concentrate on the

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concept, the name "earth," so that he becomes able to conceptualize it with his eyes shut as easily as with them open. After that he no longer needs to sit in front of the piece of earth, but can contemplate it wherever he is. If his concentration is distracted he should return to the piece of earth and reconsider it.

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(E101-102; T130-131) The foregoing procedure restrains the obstructions, the defilements subside, the mind takes up contemplation, and the day's sign arises. This sign differs from the piece of earth itself in that it lacks the faults apparent in the lump of clay, because it lacks such properties as color and shape. It is not cognizable by the eye.

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Meditation is of two kinds: access meditation and absorption. The difference is that in the former the factors are not strong, so that the meditator passes back and forth between concentration and ordinary experiencing. In the latter stage the mind can remain in concentration for a whole night and day.

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(E102-109; T132-141) The absorption meditation is difficult to gain and thus must be carefully guarded by paying attention to the following seven kinds of threat: (1) an unsuitable abode, (2) an unsuitable village, (3) unsuitable talk, (4) association with unsuitable persons, (5) inappropriate food, (6) unsuitable climate, and (7) unsuitable postures. Or, if merely avoiding these unsuitable conditions is not enough, he should practise the ten kinds of skill in absorption: (1) cleansing body and mind, (2) maintaining balanced faculties (viz., faith, energy, memory, concentration and understanding) so that one does not preclude any of the others, (3) protecting the absorption once it has been developed in concentration, (4) choosing the proper time to meditate in different ways--initial thought when the mind is not keen, etc., so that keenness is developed naturally through inquiry (the factors of initial thought are described), (5) restraining the mind when it should be restrained--so that when the mind is overly energetic he should, instead of initial thought, practice tranquility (the factors of tranquility are described), (6) stimulation of the mind when it is slack, (7) looking indifferently on the mind when it is neither too energetic nor too slack, (8) avoiding nonmeditating persons, (9) cultivating meditating persons, (10) resoluteness in concentration.

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(E111-112; T142-144) Now, while he is concentrating on earth in this way, a series of four or five impulsions--the access consciousness, the last of which is the absorption consciousness, which changes his lineage. Then concentration lapses and he returns to ordinary awareness.

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This last or "absorption" consciousness is counted as a single moment of consciousness. (There are seven cases in which the normal way of counting moments doesn't apply: the first absorption, worldly faculty, the four paths, the fruit following the path, ordinary awareness in the material and immaterial conditions, neither-identification-nonidentification as condition for cessation, and the fruit of cessation.)

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(E112-122; T144-158) At this point the meditator has gained the first level. *Vibhaṅga* 245's description of this state is quoted and explained. Such a meditator is said to be "secluded from sense desires and from unprofitable things," his state is "accompanied by initial and sustained thought with joy and satisfaction born of discrimination (discrimination is explained as the disappearance of the obstructions), and joy and satisfaction are illustrated with stories. He has abandoned the five obstructions and possesses the five factors (of initial thought, sustained thought, joy, satisfaction and one-pointedness), is good in the beginning, middle and end, and has the ten features of those as described in *Paṭisambhidāmagga* (quoted).

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(E123-125; T158-161) The meditator should now extend his ability by thinking of the sign as smaller and larger in extent, and thus making the boundaries of his thought stretch out to encompass the sun and the moon, etc. But one who has just come to the first meditative level should enter it often rather than strive too soon for the more advanced levels. He should practise the five meditation factors until he gains mastery of them. The five factors are adverting, attaining, resolving or steadying, emerging and reviewing. He should gain mastery at each of these, and thus be able to contemplate the flaws of the first level as he brings the second level to mind by using the earth *kasiṇa* (or some other) as before.

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(E125-128; T161-165) Now *Vibhaṅga* 245, describing the second meditative level, is quoted and explained word by word. Initial and sustained thought are stilled, but confidence, singleness of mind, joy and satisfaction born of concentration are found here.

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Objection: Isn't confidence present in the first level oo, as well as single-pointed concentration? So why are they mentioned as distinguishing features of the second level?

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Answer: The confidence and singleness are not fully attained in the first level.

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(E128-132; T165-171) Ina similar fashion he eventually masters the factors of the second level and is able to bring the third meditative level

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to mind, still using the same sign (say, earth). Now, on this third level (again, following *Vibhaṅga* 245), there is nonattachment to joy; he gains equanimity; he experiences satisfactions through his body. His equanimity is of ten kinds: (1) six-factored equanimity, where the contaminants are destroyed as the six kinds of objects are viewed indifferently; (2) equanimity of sublime state, neutrality toward beings generally; (3) equanimity as a factor of enlightenment, neutrality as between various concurrently arising factors; (4) equanimity of energy, where he is neither too much nor too little energetic in practising meditation; (5) equanimity concerning traces comprises indifference among the various ways of terminating the obstructions, etc.; (6) equanimity of feeling, i.e., experiencing neither satisfaction nor frustration; (7) equanimity about insight is indifference to what is investigated; (8) equanimity as neutrality concerning the states born together such as interest, etc.; (9) equanimity of meditation is indifference even toward the highest satisfaction; (10) equanimity of purity is the indifference where there is nothing more to be quieted. Here what is intended (in the quote characterizing the third level) is the ninth item, equanimity of meditation.

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In this third meditative level he is mindful and fully aware. Though he has no interest in experiencing satisfaction, he nevertheless does so in his name-body (*nāmakāya*) and so when he comes out of concentration he naturally experiences some in his material body as well.

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(E132-136; T171-175) Similarly, having mastered the third level he is able to take up the fourth. On the fourth meditative level (*Vibhaṅga* 245 again) bodily satisfaction and frustration having been given up in previous levels, contentment and depression now likewise disappear. These cessations take place at the moment of access into the meditation, even though in some texts they are said to disappear in the meditation itself--what those mean is that the cessation of satisfaction and frustration is pre-eminent, in that it will not arise again through external stimulation in absorption. By the time of the fourth meditative level one has a feeling that is neither satisfying nor frustrating, that is, it consists in equanimity, which also involves purity of memory/mindfulness.

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(E136-137; T175-176) The same development is briefly reviewed using the fivefold meditative reckoning.

Chapter 5: The Remaining Kasiṇas

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(E138-144; T177-184) The other nine *kasiṇas* are explained one by one. In each case one constructs or recognizes the sign in the appropriate medium--water, fire, air, colored things that are blue, red, yellow or white, in a patch of sunlight or moonlight, in any place of limited extension. Special powers accrue for those who utilize each of these kasiṇas. We are also informed that no kasiṇa can be fruitfully meditated on by one who is burdened with one of the five kinds of bad karma that have immediate effect, or by one who has fixed wrong views, or who has not had several morally-positive rebirths, or who lacks faith, zeal or understanding.

Chapter 6: Foulnesses as Subjects for Meditation

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(E145-160; T185-203) The ten kinds of foulness--various stages of decaying of dead bodies--are listed and explained. Each of them may be made the subject of meditation, and the way this can be done is explained fully in connection with the first of the ten (the bloated state) as illustrative of the others. Essentially the method is to make as before a sign of the subject, which is then developed through meditation so that it is seen large, small, in various places and times. For this the subject must be considered in a variety of ways--by its shape, its color, its location, etc. The body should be of the same sex as the meditator to avoid improper excitement. The purpose of this kind of meditation is to gain nondelusion, so that one will not be panicked and fearful in the presence of the dead.

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The difficulty of developing this kind of meditation subject is shown by pointing out that the initial acquisition and the earlier stages require the meditator to be in the presence of a dead body. However, if he is interrupted by someone asking him the time of day, etc., he will likely lose the sign, and if by then the body has been disposed of he will have a difficult time regaining the sign. Thus he is counseled to continuously review the path by which he has gained the sign as a way of reinforcing it even in the absence of the original body on which it was acquired.

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Ultimately the meditator gains reverence for the dead body and comes to love it, and through this meditation comes to believe he will be liberated from aging and death. And indeed once the "counterpart" sign is gained the five defilements are overcome and one gains access to the meditative level.

Chapter 7: Six Recollections

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(E161-187; T204-246) Of the ten recollections mentioned among the forty subjects for meditation, six are considered in this chapter. The first is the (1) recollection of the enlightened one--that the Buddha is an arhat, with all that that implies; that the Buddha is fully enlightened, having understood all things rightly; that the Buddha has understanding and virtue--three kinds of the former and eight of the latter (following canonical sources); that the Buddha is sugata, literally well-gone, having gone by the noble path without returning to the defilements and speaking only things appropriate to the occasion; that the Buddha is a world-knower, knowing it in myriad ways which are described in suitably vast numbers; that the Buddha is an incomparable leader of those needing taming--those are the animals, men and gods who were disciplined by the Buddha according to tradition; that the Buddha is teacher of men and gods; he is enlightened and blessed.

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(2) is the recollection of the dharma, rightly proclaimed by the Buddha; presently visible (or, alternatively, preaching the correct view); inviting inspection; directly experienced by wise men.

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(3) is the recollection of the Order, taking a good path, comprising four or eight pairs of kinds of persons (depending on how one counts), i.e., whether one counts the person who is on the first path and the one who gains its fruits as one or two persons); fit for giving to, for hospitality, for offering, for salutation; an incomparable field of merit for the world.

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(4) is the recollection of virtue, where virtues are listed following Aṅguttara 3, 286 and are explained.

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(5) is the recollection of generosity: various synonyms for "generous" are explained.

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(6) is the recollection of gods, their special qualities of faith, etc.

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These six recollections succeed only for noble persons, since they alone appreciate the special qualities of the Buddha, the dharma and the order, possess virtue, generosity and the kind of faith, etc., appropriate to gods.

Chapter 8: The Remaining Recollections

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(E188-196; T247-259) (7) is the recollection of death. Here "death" does not mean the conventional momentary dissolution of traces normally associated with the word, but rather the distinction between timely and untimely death. A timely death is one that comes about through either the exhaustion of merit or through the exhaustion of the normal life span of people of today, who live for only around 100 years. Untimely death is the death of those whose *bhavaṅga* is interrupted by a very bad act or who are felled by weapons, etc., due to previous karma. One meditating on this recollection properly destroys the defilements and gets access to the meditative levels. There are eight ways of properly recollecting death: meditating on death as a murderer, since it takes away life; meditating on it as the ruin of success; viewing it by comparison with famous persons reflecting that even these great ones eventually died, even the enlightened ones themselves; meditating on the body as the abode of many--many worms as well as the target of many others; meditating on the difficulty of keeping alive; meditating on it as without occasion, since beings die unpredictably; meditating on the shortness of a lifetime; meditating on the fact that, properly speaking, the lifetime of a being is a single moment of consciousness, that one dies every moment, so to speak.

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(E196-204; T259-268) (8) The eighth kind of recollection is that occupied with the body. Actually this meditation is related to a number of topics--breathing, posture, the four kinds of comprehension, the kinds of repulsiveness, the kinds of elements, and the nine things of a funeral ground. Of these, posture, the comprehensions and the elements belong to the discussion of insight, while the things of a funeral ground have been implied in the foregoing discussion of the ten foulnesses. Breathing is treated as a separate topic (the recollection of breathing). Here the discussion is confined to the meditation on the body under thirty-two aspects. This involves considering the body under each of these aspects according to the seven kinds of skill in learning--by verbal recitation, mental recitation, consideration of color, shape, direction, location and limit--and the tenfold skill in attending--following the order of exposition, not too quickly and not too slowly, avoiding distraction, going beyond the name to the thing, abstracting the relevant parts, coming to absorption on each part, and linking energy with concentration through the *sutras* dealing with the higher meditative levels, with mindfulness and with the factors of enlightenment.

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(E204-217; T268-285) The thirty-two aspects are now considered one by one. They are the hairs of the head, the body hairs, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, bone marrow, kidney, heart, liver, the inner skin covering, spleen, the covering of the heart and kidneys, the bowel tube, entrails, gorge, excrement, brain, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat,

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fat, tears, grease, spittle, snot, oil of the joints, urine (these translations mostly follow T, and only very approximately reflect the references of the descriptions provided).

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(E218-239; T1285-317) (9) The ninth recollection is of breathing. The canonical account of 16 bases in *Suttanikāya* 5, 321-322 is quoted. Each of the sixteen ways of breathing are explained at length. This recollection of breathing brings peace and cuts off initial thought. It also perfects the four foundations of mindfulness, thus leading to perfection of the limbs of enlightenment, in turn leading to clear insight and liberation. The meditator on this kind of recollection will always be able to know how to bring his life to an end.

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(E239-242; T317-321) (10) The tenth and last recollection is that of tranquility. One meditating on it contemplates the special qualities of *nirvāṇa* according to *Aṅguttaranikāya* 2.34, which is explained.

Chapter 9: The Sublime States

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(E242-252; T321-332) The first sublime state is love. One developing meditation on it should choose a person of the right sort as supporting object--one who is not antipathetic or very close to one, who is neither neutral nor hostile, who is of the same sex and not dead. He should cultivate love as a way of warding off hatred and developing patience. He should begin with himself and with his teacher. After that he can move on to a dearly beloved, a neutral person, a hostile person, using the love felt toward each preceding one as a base for developing it toward the succeeding one.

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Various texts are cited as providing methods for controlling resentment against difficult persons, e.g., by thinking on their positive qualities instead of their faults.

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(E252-258; T332-340) The mark of possessing love is that one does not prefer any of the four--himself, the beloved one, the neutral person and the hostile one--but treats them with equal friendship. At this point he has attained the first meditative level. By practising with that sign he goes on to gain the other three levels. This is illustrated at length with quotations from scriptures.

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(E258.261; T340-343) The second sublime state is compassion, the third restraint, the fourth equanimity. These are explained in terms parallel to the first.

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(E261-264; T343-347) The four terms are analyzed etymologically. Each is further analyzed according to characteristic feature, its manifestation, function, proximate cause and condition of success and of failure. Thus love's feature is the promotion of welfare, its function is to prefer welfare, its manifestation is the removal of annoyance, its proximate cause is seeing a being as lovable, and it succeeds when it makes malice subside and fails when it produces selfish affection. The feature of compassion is the producing of nonfrustration, its function is not allowing people to be frustrated; its manifestation is noninjury; its proximate cause is seeing people helpless in the face of frustration; it succeeds when it makes cruelty end and it fails when it produces frustration. The feature of restraint is delight; its function is nonenvy; its manifestation is the elimination of dislike; its proximate cause the success of beings; it succeeds when discontent subsides; and it fails when it produces derision. The feature of equanimity is neutrality towards beings; its function is seeing beings as the same; its manifestation is quiet resentment towards approval; its proximate cause is seeing that each being is the doer of his deeds and thus it is their choice how to live; it succeeds when resentment and approval subside; and it fails when it merely produces the equanimity of ignorance.

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The general purpose of meditation on the sublime states is the satisfaction of insight and the attainment of a good rebirth, while the specific purposes of each are listed above.

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Each sublime state has its long-term and short-term enemies. Love has greed as the latter and ill-will as the former. Compassion has depression based on the home life as short-term, and cruelty as long-term enemies. Restraint has joy based on home-life as its short-term and discontent as its long-term enemies. Equanimity has the equanimity of ignorance based on home life as its short-term, with passion and repugnance as its long-term enemies.

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(E264-268; TI347-353) Why are they called "sublime states?" They are pure and superlative like Brahmā. Why only four of them? Because they provide four paths to purity for four types of persons. In what order should they be practised? In the order listed, since the ends--welfare, removal of suffering, gladness and equanimity--are naturally ordered that way. Why are they called "boundless" in the Abhidharma? Because they are taken toward beings without limit.

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The first three are applicable in three meditative levels (of the fourfold classification, or four of the fivefold) only, since they are not dissociated from contentment. But the last applies only to the last level, being associated with equanimity.

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Objection: But in Aṅguttaranikāya 4, 300 the Buddha teaches that the boundless states should be practised in all four meditations.

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Answer: If it were so, then even contemplation of the body would apply on all four levels. So the Buddha must have had a different intention in the passage mentioned, and it is explained how to interpret the passage consistently with the thesis advanced here.

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Still, each of the four is the basis for the next one.

Chapter 10: The Immaterial Levels

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(E269-273; T354-360) One who wants to develop the organ called endless space sees danger in material things because of its leading to hitting with sticks and thousands of afflictions, and so he takes up the fourth meditative level through any of the nine meditative kasinas excluding the limited-space kasina. But though this gets him to the fourth level of the material level, he still wants to get beyond even the matter of the kasina. So he turns his attention to endless space and takes it as his kasina, seeing everything as boundless space. Then he removes the materiality from this kasina by attending only to the space touched by matter but not to the matter, saying to himself "space, space." Developing this meditation through practice he follows the same stages of development as described under the earth-kasina above, except that instead of looking at his kasina he is looking at empty space.

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Vibhaṅga 245 is quoted and explained in a word-for-word commentary.

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(E273-281; TI360-371) Similarly, one who wants to develop boundless consciousness concentrates and meditates on it in parallel fashion. Likewise, one who wants to reach nothingness meditates on it. Fourthly and similarly for the final immaterial state, viz., neither-identification-nor-nonidentification. The remainder of Vibhaṅga 245 is quoted and explained with word-for-word commentary and several similes.

Chapter 11: The Remaining Subjects of Meditation

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(E282-288; T372-380) The identification of repulsiveness in food is the next topic to be considered in the list of forty subjects of meditation. It is the "one identification" listed after the four immaterial states.

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Food" in general isn't limited to physical nourishment, but also includes contact which nourishes feelings, conceptual identifications which nourish rebirth-linking, and consciousness which nourishes the psychophysical complex at the moment of linking. However, here only physical food is intended. The repulsiveness of food and drink is reviewed from a variety of angles.

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(E288-308; T380-406) Last of the forty subjects for meditation is the "defining of the four meditative levels". The authority for this is traced to the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sūtra, where it is given in brief, and the Mahāṭṭhipadūpamā, Rāhulavāda and Dhātuvibhaṅga Sūtras, where it is given in detail. The idea is that one meditates on the fact that everything is composed of the four elements and thus loses the conception of each thing as a single whole entity of some sort or other. Thus the subjects meditated on here are in fact the essential features of earth, water, fire and air. Each is analyzed into its essential features, and then it is shown how the meditator should analyze each of forty-two parts of the body--hairs, nails, teeth, skin, etc.--into its elementary constituents. Then it is explained that the meditator may consider the classes into which these forty-two (thirty-two?) items may be classified according to the number of components among the four elements. Again, the meditator may consider the meanings of the words used to designate each of the elements, the groups of factors of which each of the parts of the body is composed, the particles into which each part can be divided, the characteristic features of each element, how each part of the body originates, its variety and unity, the elements necessarily arising in every minimal group of eight but being different in feature, their similarity and dissimilarity, their role in internal and external things, their connection, their conditions, their lack of consciousness and their collective conditions, viz., action, awareness, food and temperature.

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This concludes the section answering the question (begun at E72, T90 above) "How should concentration be developed?".

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(E308-309; T406-408) It is also asked, What are the benefits of developing concentration? This is the question which is now taken up in the next sections. The general answer is this. For noble persons whose contaminants are destroyed the benefit is satisfying views and states. For ordinary people and seekers the benefit is insight. When these have attained the eight absorptions and seek higher faculties, the benefit of developing concentration is gaining those faculties. For ordinary persons while in meditation the benefit is the gaining of rebirth in Brahma's world. Noble persons who have mastered the eight absorptions gain cessation and eventually liberation.

Chapter 12: The Kinds of Higher Faculties

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(E313-316; T409-412) There are five kinds of higher faculties: (1) supernormal power, (2) knowledge of the divine ear element, (3) knowledge of penetration of minds, (4) knowledge of recollection of past life, (5) knowledge of the passing away and reappearance of beings.

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(1) Supernormal Power. 'The yogi who wishes to develop supernormal powers must attain in fourteen ways the eight absorptions from earth through white-color. The fourteen ways are as follows: (1) the yogi attains meditation first with the earth *kasiṇa*, then with the water *kasiṇa* and so on through the eight; (2) he does it in the reverse order; (3) he does it first in the order and then in the reverse order; (4) he attains each of the four meditative levels in order; (5) he attains them in reverse order; (6) he attains them first in order and then in reverse order; (7) he practises all eight *kasiṇas* but skips every other meditative level; (8) he practises all four levels but skips every other *kasiṇa*; (9) he skips every other of both levels and *kasiṇas*; (10) he attains the first level with the earth *kasiṇa* and then the other three levels with the same *kasiṇa*; (11) he attains the first level with each of the eight *kasiṇas*; (12) he attains the first level with the water *kasiṇa*, the second level with the water *kasiṇa*, third with fire, fourth with air, the meditation on endless space by removing the blue *kasiṇa*, the meditation on endless consciousness by removing the yellow *kasiṇa*, the meditation on nothingness by removing the red *kasiṇa*, and the neither-identification-nor-nonidentification meditation by removing the white *kasiṇa*; (13) he classifies the meditational states as having different numbers of factors respectively; (14) he classifies merely according to the objects of the *kasiṇas*.

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This extensive meditative practice is very difficult, and only a few can manage it. However, Buddhas, self-enlightened, chief disciples, etc., because of their special qualities, obtain supernormal powers merely on attainment of the state of *arhat* and don't need the prolonged meditation practice described.

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(E316-317; T412-414) Now *Dīghanikāya* 1, 77 is given a word-by-word explanation. It describes how one who has attained the fourth meditative level through practising these fourteen kinds of meditative practice and thus has a concentrated, purified, malleable mind directs its thoughts to the supernormal powers, explained as derived from the word meaning "success."

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(E317-322; T414-420) There are ten kinds of "success." (1) The first is the power of becoming many by resolving to be so. (2) The power of displaying other forms. (3) The power created by mental activity in another body which he displays. (4) The power created by an arhat's contemplating impermanence as Bakkula did who was preserved alive in the belly of a fish. (5) The power created by concentration, as Sariputta did when attacked during concentration, or Sañjīva who was set on fire during concentration and was not burnt. (6) The power of the noble persons who see repulsive things as unrepulsive. (7) The power born of the maturation of karma to fly through the air which is shared by birds, gods, some humans, etc. (8) The power of meritorious ones to travel through the air, etc. (9) The power gained through success in the sciences, a power of flying, bringing about various illusions, etc. (10) The power gained through right effort applied in appropriate places, e.g., when one overcomes lust through renunciation, or even everyday efforts such as making a cart, etc.

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(E322-341; T420-445) It is now explained how the monk gains these powers. He must obtain the four stages, the four footings, the eight footings, the sixteen roots, and then he establishes himself in knowledge.

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The four stages are the four meditative levels. The four footings are those bases which involve respectively zealous-striving, concentration due to desire, energy, and inquiry. The eight footings are the strivings for each of the above four kinds of concentration, plus the four above-mentioned footings themselves. The sixteen roots are awarenesses free from various defects, as follows: undejected consciousness, unelated consciousness, unattracted consciousness, unrepelled consciousness, independent consciousness, untrammelled consciousness, liberated consciousness, unassociated consciousness, consciousness rid of barriers, unified consciousness, consciousness reinforced by faith, consciousness reinforced by energy, consciousness reinforced by mindfulness, consciousness reinforced by concentration, consciousness reinforced by understanding, illuminated consciousness. He establishes himself with knowledge when, having attained these first four things, he attains meditation as a basis for a higher faculty and emerges from it. Then he can attain any of the ten kinds of power merely by reentering the meditation and resolving appropriately. Discrimination is commented on in this connection; Cula-Panthaka is cited, who became many through meditation after having been counselled by the Buddha. Other such miracles are detailed, and it is narrated at length how meditation on kasinas of various sorts prepared the way for development of these supernatural powers.

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