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Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus c6: Section III

Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus c6

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English

Contents

Section III

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*Present divisions of the Hindus, and of the Vaishnavas in particular.*

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The classification adopted by the works, I especially follow, if not unexceptionable, is allowable and convenient, and may, therefore, regulate the following details : it divides all the Hindus into three great classes or *Vaishnavas*, *Saivas*, and *Sáktas*, and refers to a fourth or miscellaneous class, all not comprised in the three others.

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The worshippers of VISHNU, SIVA, and SAKTI, who are the objects of the following description, are not to be confounded with the orthodox adorers of those divinities : few Brahmans of learning, if they have any religion at all, will acknowledge themselves to belong to any of the popular divisions of the Hindu faith, although, as a matter of simple preference, they more especially worship some individual deity, as their chosen, or *Ishta Devata* : they refer also to the *Védas*, the books of law, the Puránas, and Tantras, as the only ritual they recognise, and regard all practices not derived from those sources as irregular and profane : on the other hand, many of the sects seem to have originated, in a great measure, out of opposition to the Brahmanical order : teachers and disciples are chosen from any class, and the distinction of castes is, in a great measure, sunk in the new one, of similarity of schism : the ascetics and mendicants, also, in many instances, affect to treat the Brahmans with particular contempt, and this is generally repaid with interest by the Brahmans. A portion, though not a large one, of the populace is still attached to the *Smárta* Brahmans, as their spiritual guides, and are so far distinct from any of the sects we shall have to specify, whilst most of the followers, even of the sects, pay the ordinary deference to the Brahminical order, and especially evince towards the Brahmans of their own fellowship, of whom there is generally abundance, the devotedness and submission which the original Hindu Code so perpetually inculcates.

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Excluding, therefore, those who may be regarded as the regular worshippers of regular gods, we have the following enumeration of the several species of each class :

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VAISHNAVAS.

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1 Rámánujas, or Sri Sampradáyis, or Sri Vaishnavas. 2 Rámánandis, or Rámáwats. 3 Kabir Panthis. 4 K’hákis. 5 Maluk Dásis. 6 Dádu Pant’his. 7 Ráya Dásis. 8 Senais. 9 Vallabhácháris, or Rudra Sampradáyis. 10 Mira Bais. 11 Madhwácháris, or Brahma Sampradáyis. 12 Nimáwat, or Sanakádi Sampradáyis. 13 The Vaishnavas of Bengal. 14 Rádhá Vallabhis. 15 The Sak’hi Bhávas. 16 Charan Dásis. 17 Harischandis. 18 Sadhna Panthis. 19 Madhavis. 20 Sanyásis, Vairágis and Nágas.

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SAIVAS.

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1 Dandis and Dasnámis. 2 Jogis. 3 Jangamas. 4 Paramahansas. 5 Urdhabá’hus, Akas Muk’his, and Nak’his. 6 Gúdaras. 7 Rúk’haras, Súk’haras and Uk’haras. 8 Kara Lingis. 9 Sanyásis, &c.

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SA’KTAS.

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1 Dakshinis. 2 Vámis.

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3 Káncheliyas. 4 Karáris.

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Miscellaneous Sects.

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1 Gánapatyas. 2 Saurapatas. 3 Nának Sháhis of seven classes. 1 Udásis. 2 Ganjbakhshis. 3 Rámráyis. 4 Suthra Sháhis. 5 Govind Sinhis. 6 Nirmalas. 7 Nágas. 4 Jainas of two principal orders. 1 Digambaras. 2 Swetámbaras. 5 Bába Lális. 6 Prán Náthis. 7 Sádhs. 8 Satnámis. 9 Siva Náráyinis. 10 Súnyabádis.

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These will be regarded as varieties enough, it may be presumed, especially when it is considered, that most of them comprise a number of sub-divisions, and that besides these acknowledged classifications, many individual mendicants are to be found all over India, who can scarcely be included within the limits of any of them, exercising a sort of independence both in thought and act, and attached very loosely, if at all, to any of the popular schismatical sects.*

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∗ Some of the popular works adopt a different classification, and allude to 96 *Pdshandas*, or heresies, which are thus arranged :— Amongst the Brahmans, . . . . . 24 Sanysáis, . . . . . 12 Vairágis, . . . . . 12 Sauras, . . . . . 18 Jangamas, . . . . . 18 Jogis, . . . . . 12

Vaishnavas

1 Sri Sampradáyis, or Rámánujas

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Amongst other divisions of less importance, the Vaishnavas are usually distinguished into four principal Sampradáyas, or sects;* of these, the most ancient and respectable is the Sri Sampradáya, founded by the

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* Thus the Bhakta Málá, चावीस प्रथम हरि वपु धस्यौ त्यों चतुर युइ कलियुग प्रगट। श्रीरामानुज उदार सुधानिधि अवनि कल्पतरु। विष्णुस्वामी बोहितसिंधु संसार पारक। मध्वाचारज मेघभक्ति झरज सर भरिया। निम्बादित्य आदित्य कुंजर अज्ञान जुहरिया। जन्मकर्म भागवत धर्मसम्प्रदायथापी अघट। चौबीस प्रथम हरिरित्यादि। “HARI, in preceding ages, assumed twenty-four principal shapes, but four were manifest in the Kali Yug : the magnanimous Rámánuja, a treasure of Ambrosia and terrestrial tree of plenty : the ocean of kindness and transporter across the sea of the universe, Vishnu Swami : Madhu Achárj, a rich cloud in the autumnal season of piety : and Nimbáditya, a sun that illumined the cave of ignorance ; by them acts of piety and obligation were divided, and each sect was severally established.” There are also Sanscrit texts authorising the different institution, and characteristic term of each Sampraddya, one of these is from the Padma Purána.

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सम्प्रदाय विहीना ये मन्त्रास्ते निष्फलामताः। अतः कलौभविष्यन्ति चत्वारः सम्प्रदायिनः॥ श्रीमाध्वीरुद्रसनकावैष्णवाः क्षितिपावनाः। चत्वारस्ते कलौदेवि सम्प्रदायप्रवर्त्तकाः॥

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“Those Mantras, which belong to no system, are of no virtue ; and, therefore, in the Kali age, there shall be followers of four sects. Sri, Mádhwi, Rudra and Sanaka, shall be the Vaishnavas, purifying the world, and these four, Dévi, (Siva speaks,) shall be the institutors of the Sampradáyas in the Kali period.” We may here observe in passing, that if this text is genuine, the Padma Purána must be very modern: another similar text is the following :

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रामानुजं श्रीस्खीचक्रे मध्वाचार्य्यचतुर्मुखः। श्रीविष्णुस्वामिनं रुद्रो निम्बादित्यश्चतुस्मनः॥

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“LAKSHMI' selected Rámánuja ; BRAHMA Madhwáchárya ; Rudra gave the preference to Vishnu Swámi, and the four Sanakas to Nimbáditya.” The cause of the election is not very evident, as the creeds taught by those teachers, have little connexion with the deity who lends the appellation to the sects.

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Vaishnava reformer Rámánuja Achárya, about the middle of the twelfth century.*

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The history of RA'MA'NUJA, and his first followers, is well known in the south of India, of which he was a native, and is recorded in various legendary tracts and traditional narratives.

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According to the *Bhárgava Upapurána*, RA'MA'NUJA is said to have been an incarnation of the serpent *Sesha*, whilst his chief companions and disciples were the embodied *Discus*, *Mace*, *Lotus*, and other insignia of *Vishnu*. In a *Kanara* account of his life, called the *Divya Charitra*, he is said to have been the son of *Sri Kesava Achárya* and *Bhúmi Deví*; and, as before, an incarnation of *Sesha*. He was born at *Perumbur*, and studied at *Kánchi*, or *Conjeveram*, where also he taught his system of the *Vaishnava* faith. He afterwards resided at *Sri Ranga*, worshipping *Vishnu* as *Sri Ranga Nát'ha*, and there composed his principal works : he then visited various parts of India, disputing with the professors of different creeds, overcoming them of course, and reclaiming various shrines, then in possession of the *Saivas*, for the worshippers of *Vishnu*, particularly the celebrated temple of *Tripeti*.

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On his return to *Sri Ranga*, the disputes between the *Vaishnava* and *Saiva* religions, became exceedingly violent, and the *Chola* monarch, who, according to some accounts, was at that time KERI-KA'LA CHOLA, subsequently named KRIMI KONDA CHOLA, being a devout worshipper of *Siva*, commanded all the *Brahmans* in his dominions to sign an acknowledgement of the supremacy of that divinity, bribing some of the most refractory, and terrifying others into acquiescence. RA'MA'NUJA, however, was impracticable, and the king sent armed men to seize him. With the assistance of his disciples, he effected his escape, and ascending the Ghats, found refuge with the *Jain* sovereign of Mysore, *Vitala Deva*, *Velála Rája*. In consequence of rendering medical service to the daughter of this prince, or in the terms of the legend, expelling an evil spirit, a *Brahma Rákshasa*, by whom she was possessed, he obtained the monarch’s grateful regard, and finally converted him to the *Vaishnava* faith. The *Rája* assumed the title of *Vishnu Verddhana*. *Ra'ma'nuja* remained several years in Mysore, at a temple founded by the *Rája* on *Yádava Giri*, now known as *Mail Cotay*, for the reception of an image called *Chavala Rája*, a form of *Ranachhor*, or *Krishna*, which the local traditions very ridiculously pretend he obtained from the Mohammedan sovereign of Delhi. *Ra'ma'nuja* resided here twelve years, but on the death of his persecutor, the Chola king, he returned to *Sri Ranga*, on the *Káverí*, and there spent the remainder of his life in devout exercises and religious seclusion.

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∗ The *Smriti Kála Taranga* places the date of RA'MA'NUJA's appearance in *Saka*-1049 or A.D. 1127. A note by Colonel Mackenzie on an inscription, given in the Asiatic Researches 9, 270, places the birth of RA'MA'NUJA in A.D. 1008 : various accounts, collected by Dr. Buchanan, make it 1010 and 1025 (Buchanan's Mysore, 2, 80) and 1019 (Ibid, 3, 413,) Inscriptions make him alive in 1128, (Ibid) which would give him a life of more than a century : according to Col. Wilks, indeed, (History of Mysore, 1,41, note and appendix), he was alive in 1183. The weight of authority seems to be in favour of the more recent date, and we may conclude that he was born about the end of the eleventh century, and that the first half of the twelfth century was the period at which his fame, as a teacher, was established.

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The establishments of the Rámánujiyas are numerous in the Dekhin still, and the same country comprehends the site of the *Gaddi*, the pillow or seat of the primitive teacher; his spiritual throne, in fact, to which his disciples are successively elevated.* This circumstance gives a superiority to the *Acháryas* of the *Dekhina*, or South, over those of the *Uttara*, or North, into which they are at present divided.

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The worship of the followers of *Ra'ma'nuja*, is addressed to *Vishnu* and to *Lakshmi*, and their respective incarnations, either singly or conjointly; and the *Sri Vaishnavas*, by which general name the sect is known, consist of corresponding subdivisions, as *Na'ra'yana*, or *Lakshmi*, or *Lakshmi Na'ra'yan*, or *Ra'ma* or *Sita*, or *Sita Ra'ma*, or *Krishna*, or *Rukmini*, or any other modifications of *Vishnu*, or his consort, is the preferential object of the veneration of the votary.† The *Sri Vaishnava* worship in the north of India, is not very popular, and the sect is rather of a speculative than practical nature, although it does not require, in its teachers, secession from the world : the teachers are usually of the Brahmanical order, but the disciples may be of any caste.*

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∗ According to information obtained by Dr. Buchanan, *Ra'ma'nuja* founded 700 *Matts*, of which four only remain; one of the principal of these is at *Mail Cotay*, or *Dakshina Badarikdsrama*, the *Badari* station of the South. *Ra'ma'nuja* also established 74 hereditary *Guruships* amongst his followers, the representatives of which still remain and dispute the supremacy with the *Sanyási* members of the order; these last, however, are generally considered of the highest rank, (Buch. Mysore, 2, 75). In another place (1, 144), he says that 89 *Guruships* were established, 5 in the *Sanyasi* class, and 84 in the secular order: the *Matams* of the five former are *Ahobalem*, *Totádri*, *Raméswara*, *Sri Rangam*, and *Kánji*.

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† Mr. Colebrooke, A. R. 7, says the *Rámánujas* are of three classes, those who worship *Ra'ma* alone, *Sita* alone, and *Sita* and *Ra'ma* conjointly. One of my authorities, *Mathura Náth*, says, they worship *Mahá Lakshmi*, and other information agrees with

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Besides the temples appropriated to VISHNU and his consort, and their several forms, including those of KRISHNA and RA'MA, and those which are celebrated as objects of pilgrimage, as *Lakshmi-Balaji*, *Rám-náth*, and *Ranganáth*, in the south ; *Badarinat'h*, in the Himalaya, *Jagan-nát'h*, in Orissa, and *Dwáraká*, on the Malabar Coast, images of metal or stone are usually set up in the houses of the private members of this sect, which are daily worshipped, and the temples and dwellings are all decorated with the *Sálagráma* stone and *Tulasi* plant.

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The most striking peculiarities in the practices of this sect, are the individual preparation, and scrupulous privacy of their meals : they must not eat in cotton garments, but having bathed, must put on woollen or silk : the teachers allow their select pupils to assist them, but, in general, all the *Rámánujas* cook for themselves, and should the meal during this process, or whilst they are eating, attract even the looks of a stranger, the operation is instantly stopped, and the viands buried in the ground : a similar delicacy, in this respect, prevails amongst some other classes of Hindus, especially of the *Rajaput* families, but it is not carried to so preposterous an extent.†

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† It is said, however, that there are two divisions of the sect, one called *Avaraní*, from *Avarana*, screening, or surrounding, and the other *Andvaríní*, from the members not observing such punctilious privacy.

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his; from the texts quoted in the *Sarva Dersana Sangraha*, VISHNU as VA'SUDEVA, is the deity to be worshipped, but no doubt all the varieties exist : without, however, affecting the identity of the sect, the real object of whose devotion is VISHNU, as the cause and creator of the world, and any of his, or his *Sakti's* more especial manifestations, are consequently entitled to reverence. The term *Sri Vaishnavas*, most commonly applied to them, denotes an original preference of the female deity or *Mahá Lakshmi* : the worship of RA'MA is more properly that of the *Rámánandis*, and they may be the persons intended by Mr. Colebrooke's informants, as those of the *Rámánujas* who worship RA'MA only, (A. R. 7, 281). It may also be observed, that the *Rámánujas* unite with KRISHNA, *Rukmini*, not *Rúdhá*, the latter being his mistress only, not his wife, and being never named in the *Bhagavat*, except in one ambiguous passage.

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∗ The *Mantra*, and mark, are never bestowed on any person of impure birth.—Buch. Mysore, 1, 146.

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The chief ceremony of initiation in all Hindu sects, is the communication by the teacher to the disciple of the *Mantra*, which generally consists of the name of some deity, or a short address to him; it is communicated in a whisper, and never lightly made known by the adept to profane ears. The *Mantra* of the Ra'ma'nuja sect is said to be the six syllable *Mantra*—or *Om Ra'ma'ya namah*; or Om, salutation to Ra'ma.*

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Another distinction amongst sects, but merely of a civil character, is the term or terms with which the religious members salute each other when they meet, or in which they are addressed by the lay members. This amongst the *Rámánujas* is the phrase, *Dásosmi*, or *Dásóham*; I am your slave; accompanied with the *Pranám*, or slight inclination of the head, and the application of the joined hands to the forehead. To the *Achàryas*, or supreme teachers of this sect, the rest perform the *Ashtánga Dandawat* or prostration of the body, with the application of eight parts—the forehead, breast, hands, knees, and insteps of the feet, to the ground.

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The Hindu sects are usually discriminated by various fantastical streaks on their faces, breasts, and arms: for this purpose, all the *Vaishnavas* employ especially, a white earth called *Gopichandana*, which, to be of the purest description, should be brought from *Dwárakà*, being said to be the soil of a pool at that place, in which the *Gopi's* drowned themselves when they heard of *Krishna's* death. The common *Gopichandana*, however, is nothing but a *magnesian* or *calcareous* clay.

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The marks of the *Rámánujas* are two perpendicular white lines, drawn from the root of the hair to the commencement of each eye-brow, and a transverse streak connecting them across the root of the nose: in the centre is a perpendicular streak of red, made with red Sanders, or *Roli*, a preparation of turmeric and lime; they have also patches of *Gopichandana*, with a central red streak on the breast, and each upper arm: the marks are supposed to represent the *Sank'h*, *Chakra*, *Gadá*, and Padma,* or Shell, Discus, Club, and Lotus, which VISHNU bears in his four hands, whilst the central streak is SRI, or LAKSHMI.† Some have these objects carved on wooden stamps, with which they impress the emblems on their bodies, and others carry their devotion so far as to have the parts cicatrized with heated metallic models of the objects they propose to represent, but this is not regarded as a creditable practice:‡ besides these marks, they wear a necklace of the wood of the Tulasi, and carry a rosary of the seeds of the same plant, or of the Lotus.

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∗ In giving the *Mantras*, as they have been communicated to me, it may be necessary to suggest a doubt of their accuracy: a Hindu evades what he dislikes to answer, and will not scruple a falsehood to stop enquiry; men above prejudice, in other respects, find it so difficult to get over that of communicating the *Mantra*, that when they profess to impart it, even their sincerity can scarcely be admitted without a doubt.

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* The Vaishnava is thus described in the Bhakta Mala, the text is probably that of the Bhagavat—

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ये कण्ठलग्नतुलसीनलिनक्षमालाः ये बाहुमूलपरिशिषितशङ्खचक्राः । येवाललाटपटलेखसदूध्र्वपुण्ड्रास्ते वैष्णवाभुवनमासुपवित्रयन्ति ।

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"They who bear the Tulasi round the neck, the rosary of Lotus seeds, have the shell and discus impressed upon their upper arm, and the upright streak along the centre of the forehead, they are Vaishnavas, and sanctify the world."

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† The efficacy of these marks is very great: we are told in the Kasi Khand, that YAMA directs his ministers to avoid such as bear them, and the same work observes, that no sin can exist in the individuals who make use of them, be they of whatever caste.

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ब्राह्मणः क्षत्रियो वैश्यः शूद्रो वा यदि वेतरः । विष्णुभक्तिसमायुक्तो ज्ञेयः सर्वोत्तमस्तु सः ।। शङ्खचक्राङ्कित तनुः शिरसामंजरीधरः । गोपीचन्दन लिप्ताङ्गो दृष्ट्वैतदघं कुतः ।।

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‡ The Vrihat Naradiya Purana sentences every Brahman adopting the practice to endless degradation, and even to the infernal regions.

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तथाहि सन्तप्त शङ्खादि लिङ्गचित्रतनुर्नरः । स सर्वपातकाभोगी चाण्डालो जन्मकोटिभिः ।। तं द्विजं तप्तशङ्खादि लिङ्गाङ्किततनुं हरः । संभाषयौरवं याति यावदिन्द्राश्चतुर्दशः ।

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The reason also occurs—ब्राह्मणस्य तनुर्येषा सर्वदेवानामाश्रिता । सा चेत्संतापिता राजन किमुवक्ष्यामहे वयम् ।। The body of a Brahman is the abode of all the gods; if that is consumed, where shall we abide? It appears, however, that stamping the mark with a hot iron, is commonly in use in the Dekhin. A similar practice seems to have been known to some of the early Christians, and baptizing with fire, was stamping the cross on the forehead with a hot iron.

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The principal authorities of this sect, are the comments of the founder on the *Sútras* of VYA'SA, and other Vaidika works : they are written in Sanscrit, and are the *Sri Bháshya*, the *Gítá Bháshya*, the *Védártha Sangraha*, *Védanta Pradípa*, and *Vedántá Sára* : besides these, the works of *Venkáta Achárya*, are of great repute amongst them, as the *Stotra Bháshya*, and *Satadushini*, and others : the *Chanda Máruta Vaidika*, and *Trinsatadhyánam*, are also works of authority, as is the *Pancharátra* of NAREDA : of the *Puránas* they acknowledge only six as authorities, the *Vishnu*, *Náredíya*, *Garura*, *Padma*, *Varáha* and the *Bhágavat* : the other twelve are regarded as *Támasi*, or originating in the principles of darkness and passion, as we have already observed. Besides these, the *Rámánujas* have a variety of popular works in the dialects of the South, one of which, the *Guru Para*, containing an account of the life of RA'-MA'NUJA, was procured by Dr. Buchanan, in the course of his statistical researches in *Mysore*.

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The chief religious tenet of the *Rámánujas*, is the assertion that *Vishnu* is BRAHME; that he was before all worlds, and was the cause and the creator of all. Although they maintain that *Vishnu* and the universe are one, yet, in opposition to the *Védanta* doctrines, they deny that the deity is void of form or quality, and regard him as endowed with all good qualities, and with a two-fold form : the supreme spirit, *Paramátmá*, or cause, and the gross one, the effect, the universe or matter. The doctrine is hence called the *Visishthádwaíta*, or doctrine of unity with attributes. In these assertions they are followed by most of the *Vaishnava* sects. Creation originated in the wish of VISHNU, who was alone, without a second, to multiply himself : he said, I will become many ; and he was individually embodied as visible and etherial light. After that, as a ball of clay may be moulded into various forms, so the grosser substance of the deity became manifest in the elements, and their combinations : the forms into which the divine matter is thus divided, are pervaded by a portion of the same vitality which belongs to the great cause of all, but which is distinct from his spiritual or etherial essence ; here, therefore, the *Rámánujas* again oppose the *Védántikas*, who identify the *Paramátmá* and *Jivátmá*, or etherial and vital spirit : this vitality, though endlessly diffusible, is imperishable and eternal, and the matter of the universe, as being the same in substance with the Supreme Being, is alike without beginning or end : PURUSHOTTAMA, or NA'RA'YAN, after having created man and animals, through the instrumentality of those subordinate agents whom he willed into existence for that purpose, still retained the supreme authority of the universe : so that the Rámánujas assert three predicates of the universe, comprehending the deity : it consists of Chit, or spirit, Achit, or matter, and Iswara, or god, or the enjoyer, the thing enjoyed, and the ruler and controuler of both. Besides his primary and secondary form as the creator, and creation, the deity has assumed, at different times, particular forms and appearances, for the benefit of his creatures ; he is, or has been, visibly present amongst men, in five modifications : in his Archa', objects of worship, as images, &c. ; in the Vibhávas, or Avatáras, as the fish, the boar, &c. ; in certain forms called Vyúhas, of which four are enumerated, Va'sudeva, or Krishna, Balara'ma, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha ; fourthly, in the Sukshma form, which, when perfect, comprises six qualities : Viraja, absence of human passion ; Vimrityu, immortality ; Visoka, exemption from care or pain ; Vijighatsá, absence of natural wants ; Satya kama, and Satya sankalpa, the love and practice of truth ; and sixthly, as the Antarátma, or Antaryámi, the human soul, or individualised spirit : these are to be worshipped seriatim, as the ministrant ascends in the scale of perfection, and adoration therefore is five-fold ; Abhigamanam, cleaning and purifying the temples, images, &c. Upadánam, providing flowers and perfumes for religious rites ; Ijyá, the presentation of such offerings, blood offerings being uniformly prohibited, it may be observed, by all the Vaishnavas ; Swádhyáya, counting the rosary and repeating the names of the divinity, or any of his forms ; and Yoga, the effort to unite with the deity : the reward of these acts is elevation to the seat of Vishnu, and enjoyment of like state with his own, interpreted to be perpetual residence in Vaikunt'ha, or Vishnu's heaven, in a condition of pure ecstasy and eternal rapture.

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The Rámánujas are not very numerous in the North of India, where they are better known as Sri Vaishnavas ; they are decidedly hostile to the Saiva sect, and are not on very friendly terms with the modern votaries of Krishna, although they recognise that deity as an incarnation of Vishnu.*

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∗ Dubois, in his 8th Chapter, has some details of the Vaishnava mendicants, as met with in the Dekhin : his account, however, does not apply to the Rámánuja, or

Ramanandis, or Ramawats

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The followers of RA'MA'NAND are much better known than those of RA'MA'NUJA in Upper Hindustan : they are usually considered as a branch of the RA'MA'NUJA sect, and address their devotions peculiarly to RA'MA-CHANDRA, and the divine manifestations connected with VISHNU in that incarnation, as SITA, LAKSHMANA, and HANUMA'N.

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RA'MA'NAND is sometimes considered to have been the immediate disciple of RA'MA'NUJA, but this appears to be an error : a more particular account makes him the fifth in descent from that teacher, as follows—The pupil and successor of RA'MA'NUJA was DEVA'NANDA; of DEVA'NANDA, HARINANDA ; of HARINANDA, RA'GHAVA'NAND, and of this last, RA'MA'-NAND, an enumeration which, if correct, would place RA'MA'NAND about the end of the thirteenth century :* there is great reason, however, to doubt his being entitled to so remote a date, and consequently to question the accuracy of his descent from RA'MA'NUJA : we shall have occasion to infer, hereafter, from the accounts given of the dates of other teachers, that RA'MA'NAND was not earlier than the end of the fourteenth, or beginning of the fifteenth, century.

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According to common tradition, the schism of RA'MA'NAND originated in resentment of an affront offered him by his fellow disciples, and sanctioned by his teacher. It is said, that he had spent some time in travelling through various parts of India, after which he returned to

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any other Vaishnava sect, as known in these provinces, although a few of the particulars may be true, if confined to the Vaishnava Vairagis—the Dekhini Vaishnavas must be, therefore, a very different class from those that are met with in any other part of India, or the Abbé must have mixed, as is not unusual with him, a small quantum of truth, with a very large portion of error : it is, indeed, impossible to think him correct, when he states, that " the sectaries of Vishnu eat publicly of all sorts of meat, except beef, and drink spirituous liquors without shame or restraint, and that they are reproached with being the chief promoters of that abominable sacrifice, the Sakti Puja :" now, it is not true of any sect in Upper India, that the practices the Abbé mentions occur at all, except in the utmost privacy and secrecy, and if even in that way they do occur, it is certainly not amongst the Vaishnava Vairagis, but with very different sects, as we shall hereafter see.

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∗ The enumeration in the Bhakta Mala is different : it there occurs 1 RA'MA'NUJA, 2 DEVA'CHA'RJ, 3 RA'GHA'VANAND, 4 RA'MA'NAND; making him the fourth.

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the *Mat'h*, or residence of his superior: his brethren objected to him, that in the course of his peregrinations, it was impossible he could have observed that privacy in his meals, which is a vital observance of the *Rámánuja* sect, and as *RA'GHAVA'NAND* admitted the validity of the objection, *RA'MA'NAND* was condemned to feed in a place apart from the rest of the disciples: he was highly incensed at the order, and retired from the society altogether, establishing a schism of his own.

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The residence of *RA'MA'NAND* was at Benares, at the *Pancha Gangá Ghát*, where a *Mat'h*, or monastery of his followers is said to have existed, but to have been destroyed by some of the Musselman princes: at present there is merely a stone plat-form in the vicinity, bearing the supposed impression of his feet, but there are many *Mat'hs* of his followers, of celebrity, at Benares, whose *Panchait*, or council, is the chief authority amongst the *Rámáwats* in Upper India: we shall have frequent occasion to mention these *Mat'hs*, or convents, and a short account of them, therefore, here be acceptable.

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Most of the religious sects of which we have to give an account, comprise various classes of individuals, resolvable, however, especially into two, whom (for want of more appropriate terms) we must call, perhaps, *Clerical* and *Lay*: the bulk of the votaries are generally, but not always, of the latter order, whilst the rest, or the *Clerical* class, are sometimes monastic, and sometimes secular: most of the sects, especially the *Vaishnavas*, leave this distinction a matter of choice: the *Vallabhácháris*, indeed, give the preference to married teachers, and all their *Gosains* are men of business and family: the preference, however, is usually assigned to teachers of an ascetic or cœnobitic life, whose pious meditations are not distracted by the affections of kindred, or the cares of the world: the doctrine that introduced similar unsocial institutions into the Christian Church, in the fourth century, being still most triumphantly prevalent in the east, the land of its nativity; the establishments of which we are treating, and the still existing practices of solitary mortification, originating in the " specious appearance and pompous sound of that maxim of the ancient philosophy, that in order to the attainment of true felicity and communion with God, it was necessary that the soul should be separated from the body even here below, and that the body was to be macerated and mortified for that purpose." (*Mosheim.* i. 378.)

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Of the cœnobitic members of the different communities, most pursue an erratic and mendicant life : all of them, indeed, at some period have led such a life, and have travelled over various parts of India singly or in bodies, subsisting by alms, by merchandise, and sometimes, perhaps, by less unexceptionable means, like the *Sarabaites* of the east, or the mendicant friars of the Latin Church : they have, however, their fixed rallying points, and are sure of finding, in various parts of their progress, establishments of their own, or some friendly fraternity where they are for a reasonably moderate period lodged and fed. When old or infirm, they sit down in some previously existing *Mat’h*, or establish one of their own.

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The *Mat’hs*, *Asthals*, or *Akáras*, the residences of the monastic communities of the Hindus, are scattered over the whole country : they vary in structure and extent, according to the property of which the proprietors are possessed ; but they generally comprehend a set of huts or chambers for the *Mahant*,* or Superior, and his permanent pupils ; a temple, sacred to the deity whom they worship, or the *Samádh*, or shrine of the founder of the sect, or some eminent teacher ; and a *Dharma Sálá*, one or more sheds, or buildings for the accommodation of the mendicants or travellers, who are constantly visiting the *Mat’h* : ingress and egress is free to all ; and, indeed, a restraint upon personal liberty seems never to have entered into the conception of any of the religious legislators of the Hindus.

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The *Mat’h* is under the entire controul of a *Mahant*, or Superior, with a certain number of resident *Chélas*, or disciples ; their number

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∗ The following description of the residence of MANDANA MISRA, from the *Sankara Vijaya* of ANANDA GIRI, is very applicable to a modern *Mat’h*.

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“ At the distance of four Yojanas, west from Hastinapur, was a square plot of ground, extending a cos on each side ; in the centre of it stood a large mansion, constructed of the timber of the Tal, and exactly facing it another a hundred cubits in length ; upon the top of this last, were many cages full of parrots, and within it resided five hundred pupils, occupied in the study of various Sástras : the first was the dwelling of the Teacher, like Brahma with four heads, like the Serpent King, with a thousand faces, and Rudra, with a five-fold head, amongst his disciples like the waves of the ocean, and enabling them to overcome the universe in unparalleled profundity and extent of knowledge : he was attended by numerous slaves of both sexes : attached to his dwelling, were wells and reservoirs, and gardens and orchards, and his person was pampered with the choicest viands procured daily by his disciples. In his court-yard were two Temples, on a circular mound, for the worship of the *Viswadevas* and the *Sálagrám*, in the form of Lakshmi Náráyana.

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varies from three or four to thirty or forty, but in both cases there are always a number of vagrant or out-members : the resident *Chélas* are usually the elders of the body, with a few of the younger as their attendants and scholars ; and it is from the senior and more proficient of these ascetics, that the *Mahant* is usually elected.

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In some instances, however, where the *Mahant* has a family, the situation descends in the line of his posterity : where an election is to be effected, it is conducted with much solemnity, and presents a curious picture of a regularly organised system of church policy, amongst these apparently unimportant and straggling communities.

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The *Mat'hs* of various districts look up to some one of their own order as chief, and they all refer to that connected with their founder, as the common head : under the presidence, therefore, of the *Mahant* of that establishment, wherever practicable, and in his absence, of some other of acknowledged pre-eminence, the *Mahants* of the different *Mat'hs* assemble, upon the decease of one of their brethren, to elect a successor. For this purpose they regularly examine the *Chélas*, or disciples of the deceased, the ablest of whom is raised to the vacant situation : should none of them be qualified, they choose a *Mahant* from the pupils of some other teacher, but this is rarely necessary, and unless necessary, is never had recourse to. The new *Mahant* is then regularly installed, and is formally invested with the cap, the rosary, the frontal mark, or *Tiká*, or any other monastic insignia, by the president of the assembly. Under the native Government, whether Mohammedan or Hindu—the election of the superior of one of these establishments was considered as a matter of sufficient moment, to demand the attention of the Governor of the province, who, accordingly, in person, or by his deputy, presided at the election : at present, no interference is exercised by the ruling authorities, and rarely by any lay character, although occasionally, a *Raja* or a *Zemindar*, to whose liberality the *Mat'h* is indebted, or in whose lands it is situated, assumes the right of assisting and presiding at the election.

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The *Mahants* of the sect, in which the election takes place, are generally assisted by those of the sects connected with them : each is attended by a train of disciples, and individuals of various mendicant tribes repair to the meeting ; so that an assemblage of many hundreds, and sometimes of thousands, occurs : as far as the resources of the *Mat'h*, where they are assembled, extend, they are maintained at its expense; when those fail, they must shift for themselves; the election is usually a business of ten or twelve days, and during the period of its continuance, various points of polity or doctrine are discussed in the assembly.

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Most of the *Mat'hs* have some endowments of land, but with the exception of a few established in large cities, and especially at Benares, the individual amount of these endowments is, in general, of little value. There are few *Mat'hs* in any district that possess five hundred bigahs of land, or about one hundred and seventy acres, and the most usual quantity is about thirty or forty bigahs only: this is sometimes let out for a fixed rent; at other times, it is cultivated by the *Mat'h* on its own account; the highest rental met with, in any of the returns procured, is six hundred and thirty rupees per annum. Although, however, the individual portions are trifling, the great number of these petty establishments renders the aggregate amount considerable, and as the endowed lands have been granted *Mafi*, or free of land tax, they form, altogether, a serious deduction from the revenue of each district.

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Besides the lands they may hold, the *Mat'hs* have other sources of support: the attachment of lay votaries frequently contributes very liberally to their wants: the community is also sometimes concerned, though, in general, covertly, in traffic, and besides those means of supply, the individual members of most of them sally forth daily, to collect alms from the vicinity, the aggregate of which, generally in the shape of rice or other grains, furnishes forth the common table: it only remains to observe, that the tenants of these *Mat'hs*, particularly the *Vaishnavas*, are most commonly of a quiet inoffensive character, and the *Mahants* especially are men of talents and respectability, although they possess, occasionally, a little of that self-importance, which the conceit of superior sanctity is apt to inspire: there are, it is true, exceptions to this innocuous character, and robberies and murders have been traced to these religious establishments.

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The especial object of the worship of RA'MA'NANDA's followers is VISHNU, as RA'MA'CHANDRA: they, of course, reverence all the other incarnations of VISHNU, but they maintain the superiority of RA'MA, in the present or *Kali Yug*; hence they are known collectively as *Rámáwats*, although the same variety prevails amongst them, as amongst the *Rámánujas*, as to the exclusive or collective worship of the male and female members of this incarnation, or of *Ráma* and *Sitá*, singly, or jointly, or *Sitá Ráma*:* individuals of them also pay particular veneration to some of the other forms of *Vishnu*, and they hold in like estimation, as the *Rámánujas*, and every *Vaishnava* sect, the *Sálagrám* stone and *Tulasi* plant: their forms of worship correspond with those of the Hindus generally, but some of the mendicant members of the sect, who are very numerous, and are usually known as *Vairágis*, or *Viraktas*, consider all form of adoration superfluous, beyond the incessant invocation of the name of *Krishna* and *Rá'ma*.

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The practices of this sect are of a less precise nature than those of the *Ra'ma'nujas*, it being the avowed object of the founder to release his disciples from those fetters which he had found so inconvenient: in allusion to this, indeed, he gave, it is said, the appellation *Avadhuta*, or *Liberated*, to his scholars, and they admit no particular observances with respect to eating or bathing,† but follow their own inclination, or comply with the common practice in these respects. The initiatory *Mantra* is said to be *Sri Ráma*—the salutation is *Jaya Sri Ráma*, *Jaya Rám*, or *Sitá Rám*: their marks are the same as those of the preceding, except that the red perpendicular streak on the forehead is varied, in shape and extent, at the pleasure of the individual, and is generally narrower than that of the *Ra'ma'nujas*.

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† The *Vairágis* of this sect, and some others, eat and drink together, without regard to tribe or caste, and are thence called *Kulatut*, or *Vernatut*.

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Various sects are considered to be but branches of the *Rámánandì Vaishnavas*, and their founders are asserted to have been amongst his disciples: of these disciples, twelve are particularised as the most eminent, some of whom have given origin to religious distinctions of great celebrity, and, although their doctrines are often very different from those of *Ra'ma'nand*, yet the popular tradition is so far corroborated, that they maintain an amicable intercourse with the followers of *R'ama'nand*, and with each other.

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The twelve chief disciples of *Ra'ma'nand*, are named, as follows—*Asa'nand*, *Kabir*, the weaver, *Raeda's*, the *Chamár*, or currier, *Pi'pa*, the *Rajaput*, *Sursura'nand*, *Sukha'nand*, *Bha'vanand*, *Dhanna*, the *Ját*, *Sena*, the barber—*Maha'nand*, *Parama'nand*, and *Sria'nand*,‡ a list which shews, that the school of RA'MA'NAND admitted disciples of every caste : it is, in fact, asserted in the *Bhakta Málá*, that the distinction of caste is inadmissible according to the tenets of the *Rámánandis* : there is no difference, they say, between the BHAGAVA'N and the *Bhakt*, or the deity and his worshipper ; but BHAGAVA'N appeared in inferior forms, as a *Fish*, a *Boar*, a *Tortoise*, &c., so therefore the *Bhakt* may be born as a *Chama*, a *Kori*, a *Ch'hipi*, or any other degraded caste.

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∗ Amongst the temples of this sect at Benares, are two dedicated to *Rádhá Krishna*, although attached to *Mat'hs* belonging to the *Rámávat* order, and not at all connected with the followers of *Vallabha*, or of *Chaitanya* and *Nitya'nand*.

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‡ The *Bhakta Málá* has a rather different list: 1 *Raghuna'th*, 2 *Ananta'nand*,

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The various character of the reputed disciples of RA'MA'NAND, and a consideration of the tenets of those sects which they have founded, lead to a conclusion, that this individual, if he did not invent, gave fresh force to a very important encroachment upon the orthodox system : he, in fact, abrogated the distinction of caste amongst the religious orders, and taught, that the holy character who quitted the ties of nature and society, shook off, at the same time, all personal distinction—this seems to be the proper import of the term *Avad'huta*, which RA'MA'NAND is said to have affixed to his followers, and they were liberated from more important restraints than those of regimen and ablution : the popular character of the works of this school, corroborates this view of RA'MA'NANDA'S innovation ; SANKARA and RA'MA'NUJA, writing to and for the Brahmanical order alone, composed chiefly, if not solely, Sanscrit commentaries on the text of the *Védas*, or Sanscrit expositions of their peculiar doctrines, and the teachers of these opinions, whether monastic or secular, are indispensably of the Brahmanical caste—it does not appear that any works exist which are attributed to RA'MA'NAND himself, but those of his followers are written in the provincial dialects, and addressed to the capacity, as well as placed within the reach, of every class of readers, and every one of those may become a *Vairági*, and rise, in time, to be a *Guru* or *Mahant*.

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We shall have occasion to speak again particularly of such of the above mentioned disciples of RA'MA'NAND, as instituted separate sects, but there are several who did not aspire to that distinction, and whose celebrity is, nevertheless, still very widely spread throughout Hindustan :

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3 KABIR, 4 SUK'HA'SUR, 5 JIVA, 6 PADMA'VAT, 7 PI'PA, 8 BHAVA'NAND, 9 RAIDA'S, 10 DHANNA, 11 SEVA, 12 SURSURA. His successors, again, were somewhat different, or 1 KAGHUNA'TH, 2 ANANTA'NAND, JOGA'NAND, RA'MDA'S, SRI KANJA, and NARAHARI.

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there are also several personages belonging to the sect of particular note, and we may, therefore, here pause, to extract a few of the anecdotes which the *Bhakta Málá* relates of those individuals, and which, if they do not afford much satisfactory information regarding their objects, will at least furnish some notion of the character of this popular work.

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Pí'PA, the *Rajaput*, is called the Raja of *Gangaraon*: he was originally a worshipper of DEVI', but abandoned her service for that of VISHNU, and repaired to Benares to put himself under the tuition of RA'MA'NAND. Having disturbed the sage at an inconvenient season, RA'MA'NAND angrily wished that he might fall into the well of his court-yard, on which Pí'PA, in the fervour of his obedience, attempted to cast himself into it to accomplish the desire of the saint. This act was with difficulty prevented by the by-standers, and the attempt so pleased RA'MA'NAND that he immediately admitted the Raja amongst his disciples.

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Pí'PA, after some time abandoned his earthly possessions, and accompanied by only one of his wives, named SITA', as ardent a devotee as himself, adopting a life of mendicity, accompanied RA'MA'NAND and his disciples to *Dwáraká*. Here he plunged into the sea to visit the submarine shrine of KRISHNA, and was affectionately received by that deity: after spending some days with him, Pí'PA returned, when the fame of the occurrence spread, and attracted great crowds to see him. Finding them incompatible with his devotions, Pí'PA left *Dwáraká* privately: on the road some Patans carried off his wife, but RA'MA himself rescued her, and slew the ravishers. The life of this vagrant Raja is narrated at considerable length in the *Bhakta Málá*, and is made up of the most absurd and silly legends. On one occasion the Raja encounters a furious lion in a forest; he hangs a rosary round his neck, whispers the Mantra of Ráma, and makes him tranquil in a moment; he then lectures the lion on the impropriety of devouring men and kine, and sends him away penitent, and with a pious purpose to do so no more.

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Of SURSURA'NAND we have a silly enough story of some cakes that were given to him by a *Mlechch'ha* being changed when in his mouth into a *Tulasi* leaf. Of DHANA, it is related that a Brahman, by way of a frolic, gave him a piece of stone, and desired him to offer to it first, whatever he was about to eat. DHANA obeyed, looking upon the stone as the representative of VISHNU, who being pleased with his devotion, appeared, and constantly tended the cattle of the simple *Ját*: at last he recommended his becoming the disciple of RA'MA'NAND, for which purpose he went to Benares, and having received the Mantra, returned to his farm. RAGHUNA'TH, or in the text ASA'NAND, succeeded RA'MA'-NAND in the Gaddi, or the pillow of the Mahant. NABAHARI or HARYA'-NAND was also a pupil of RA'MA'NAND, whom it is difficult to identify with any one in the list above given : we have a characteristic legend of him.

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Being one day in want of fuel to dress his meat, he directed one of his pupils to proceed to a neighbouring temple of DEVI', and bring away from it any portion of the timber he could conveniently remove : this was done, to the great alarm, but utter helplessness, of the goddess, who could not dispute the authority of a mortal of HARYA'NAND's sanctity. A neighbour who had observed this transaction laboured under a like want of wood : at the instigation of his wife, he repaired also to the temple, and attempted to remove one of the beams, when the goddess, indignant at his presumption, hurled him down and broke his neck : the widow hearing of her husband's fate, immediately hastened to the temple, and liberally abused the vindictive deity. DEVI' took advantage of the business to make a bargain for her temple, and restored the man to life, on condition that he would ever afterwards buy fuel for HARYA'NAND.

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The legends of such other disciples of RA'MA'NAND as occur in the Bhakta Málá will be given in their proper places, and it will be sufficient here to confine our further extracts from that authority to NA'BHA'JI, the author, SUR DA'S, and TULASI DA'S, to whose poetical talents the late version of it is largely indebted, and JAYADEVA, whose songs have been translated by Sir William Jones.

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NA'BHA'JI, the author of the Bhakta Málá, was by birth a Dom, a caste whose employ is making baskets and various sort of wicker work. The early commentators say he was of the Hanumán Bans, or Monkey tribe, because, observes the modern interpreter, Báner, a monkey, signifies in the Marwar language, a Dom, and it is not proper to mention the caste of a Vaishnava by name : he was born blind, and when but five years old, was exposed by his parents, during a time of scarcity, to perish in the woods : in this situation he was found by AGRADA'S and KI'L, two Vaishnava teachers : they had compassion upon his helplessness, and KI'L, sprinkled his eyes with the water of his Kamandalu, or water-pot, and the child saw : they carried NA'BHA'JI to their Mat'h, where he was brought up, and received the initiatory Mantra from Agradas : when arrived at maturity, he wrote the *Bhakta Málá* by desire of his *Guru*. The age of Na'bha'ji must be about two centuries, or two and a half, as he is made cotemporary with Ma'n Sinh, the Raja of Jaynagar, and with Akber. He should date much earlier, if one account of his spiritual descent which makes him the fourth from Ra'ma'nand* be admitted, but in the *Bhakta Málá*, Krishna Da's, the second in that account, does not descend in a direct line from Ra'ma'nand, but derives his qualifications as teacher from the immediate instructions of Vishnu himself : there is no necessity, therefore, to connect Na'bha'ji with Ra'ma'nand. The same authority places him also something later, as it states that Tulasi Da's, who was cotemporary with Shah Jehan, visited Na'bha'ji at Vrindavan. It is probable, therefore, that this writer flourished at the end of Akber's reign, and in the commencement of that of his successor.

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The notices we have of Sur Da's are very brief : he was blind, a great poet, and a devout worshipper of Vishnu, in whose honour all his poems are written : they are songs and hymns of various lengths, but usually short, and the greater number are *Padas*, or simply stanzas of four lines, the first line forming a subject, which is repeated as the last and the burthen of the song, *Padas* being very generally sung, both at public entertainments, and the devotional exercises of the Vaishnava ascetics. Sur Da's is said to have composed 125,000 of these *Padas* : he is almost entitled to be considered as the founder of a sect, as blind beggars carrying about some musical instruments, to which they chaunt stanzas in honour of Vishnu, are generally termed *Súr Dásis*. The tomb of Sur Da's, a simple mound of earth, is considered to be situated in a tope near Sivpur, a village about two miles to the North of Benares. There is also an account of a saint of the same name in the *Bhakta Málá*, who is possibly a different person from the blind bard. This was a Brahman, *Amin*, or collector of the Pergunnah of Sandíla, in the reign of Akber, and who with more zeal than honesty made over his collections to the shrine of Madana Mohana, a form of Krishna, at Vrindavan, and sent to the treasury chests filled with stones :* the minister Toder Mull, however, although a Hindu, was not disposed to confirm this transfer, and he had the defaulter arrested and thrown into prison. Sur Da's then applied to Akber, and the good-natured monarch, who probably thought his collector more fool than knave, set him at liberty. He retired to Vrindaban, and there continued to lead a religious and ascetic life.

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