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Education in Ancient India c10.s4: Training in Arts and Crafts

Education in Ancient India c10.s4

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English

Training in Arts and Crafts

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Introduction :—We shall now consider the problems connected with the training of students in arts and handicrafts like sculpture, artchitecture, painting, carpentry, smithy, agriculture, etc. Our sources of information are scanty, because neither Smṛitis, which have written about education, nor foreign pilgrims like Yuan Chwang and I-tsing who often throw considerable light on educational conditions, were interested in the problems connected with the training in arts and handicrafts.

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Attitude towards Arts and Crafts : Early Period :—It will be convenient at the outset to consider the general attitude of society towards arts and crafts. In the early period they were held in high esteem. Agriculture was the general profession for the average Aryan. There are prayers both in the *Rigveda* and the *Atharvaveda* for success in agricultural processes and operations. It was not therefore a profession held in low esteem as in later times. The carpenter was so important a member of the Vedic society that the chief of his guild was included among the twelve courtiers to whose houses the king had to repair in person for offering oblations at the time of his coronation. Ribhus, originally human beings, were deified as a reward for their extraordinary skill in manual arts. The same was the case with Aśvins, who though originally human princes, were later raised to the pantheon on account of their medical skill.

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Society’s Attitude In later Days : In later times however the attitude of society changed, primarily due to the development of the rigid caste system. The elevation of the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas was at the cost of the Vaishyas and Shudras, who generally used to follow manual arts and handicrafts. As the status of the Vaishyas and Shudras declined, the angle of vision to look at their usual professions also changed. Manual arts and crafts began to be held in low esteem. Carpenters and doctors for example began to be regarded as children of intercaste unions, which were disapproved by the contemporary orthodox opinion. All this resulted in a gradual boycott by Brahmanas and Kshatriyas of manual arts and crafts. As the best intellect of the community would not condescend to help their progress, the general level of skill began to decline both in fine and useful arts from about the 8th century A. D.

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Apprenticeship System : The training in fine and useful arts¹ was usually given by the apprenticeship system under which the student agreed to work under his teacher for an agreed number of years. During this period the teacher was to afford free boarding and lodging to his apprentice. Our authorities do not state the duration of the agreement, but it must have varied with different crafts. It was usually longer than the period required to master the craft, because the teacher was expected to be compensated for the trouble in teaching and the expenses in feeding the apprentice from the wages he would earn as a fully trained worker during the remaining period of his indenture. The apprentice could not back out of the agreement, if the teacher was not remiss in his duties. If he deserted his teacher without a sufficient cause, he was brought back and compelled to stay, learn and work.¹ The neglect of the training of the apprentice and the assignment to him of

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¹ विज्ञानमुच्यते शिल्पं हेमकुप्यादिसंस्थितिः । नृत्यादिकं च तच्छिक्षन्कुर्यात्कर्म गुरोर्गृहे ॥ बृहस्पति in विवादरत्नाकर, p. 141. Devanabhaṭṭa, while commenting on this observes कंकणकटका- दिनिर्माणविषयं नृत्यं गीतादिकरणविषयं चकारास्तंभकुंभादिरचनाविषयं च विज्ञानं शिल्पमुच्यते ।

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¹ Cf स्वशिल्पमिच्छन्नाहर्तुं बान्धवानामनुज्ञया ।

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आचार्यस्य वसेदन्ते कृत्वा कालं सुनिश्चितम् ॥ १७ ॥
आचार्यः शिक्षयेदेनं स्वगृहे दत्तभोजनम् ।
न चान्यत्कारयेत्कर्म पुत्रवच्चैनमाचरेत् ॥ १८ ॥
शिक्षयन्तमदुष्टं य आचार्यं संपरित्यजेत् ।
बलाद्वासयितव्यस्त्याद्वबन्धौ च सोर्हति ॥ १९ ॥
शिक्षितोपि कृतं कालमन्तेवासी समाप्नुयात् ।
तत्र कर्म च यत्कुर्यादाचार्यस्यैव तत्फलम् ॥ २० ॥
गृहीतशिल्पः समये कृत्वाचार्यप्रदक्षिणम् ।
शक्तश्चानुमान्यैनमन्तेवासी निवर्तते ॥ २१ ॥
वेतनं वा यदि कृतं ज्ञात्वा शिष्यस्य कौशलम् ।
अन्तेवासी समादद्याच्चान्यस्य गृहे वसेत् ॥ २२ ॥
नारदस्मृति, शुश्रूषाभ्युपगमप्रकरणम् ।

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work unconnected with his craft¹ were regarded as sufficient causes to nullify the agreement and permit the apprentice to leave his teacher. At the end of the agreed period, the student could leave his teacher after offering him a suitable honorarium. If however the teacher offered him suitable wages, he was expected to serve him in preference to a stranger.²

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¹ यस्तु न ग्राहयेच्छिल्पं कर्माण्यन्यानि कारयेत् । प्राप्नुयात्साहसं पूर्वं तस्माच्छिष्यो निवर्तते । Kātyāyana in Aparārka on Yāj. II, 84.

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² There is some resemblance between the Indian apprenticeship system outlined above and the system prevailing in medieval Europe. In Europe too the apprentice had to spend the earlier part of his indenture period learning his craft and getting no wages. When he had learnt his art, he would become a journeyman, but he could undertake no work except through and for the benefit of his master. At the end of the agreed period, he was at liberty to start his own business. In Europe, guilds would permit an artisan to take only one student for training; we do not know whether there were similar restrictions in ancient India. Graves, A history of Education, Vol. II, p. 97.

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Workshop Atmosphere during Training:—Our authorities lay down that the apprentice should live in his teacher’s house or factory for all the 24 hours. This was to ensure a thorough acquaintance with and grounding in the different processes of the craft that could be picked up only by an intimate and prolonged contact with the various stages of the manufacturing processes. Students were also trained to make their own tools in order to ensure perfect mastery of the profession. A painter, for example, made his own brushes from out of roots or fibres, hair of squirrels or awns of various grasses. He did not rely on colours prepared by others, but knew how to make them himself. A repousser was taught to make tools suitable for the work in hand.

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Painter’s Training as an Illustration:—In order to give an idea of the various stages of the training of the apprentice, we shall give here the different stages in the training of the painter. The apprentice was first given a practice in drawing lines and curves. When the hand, eye and memory were trained in the use of fundamental curves in this fashion, traditional ornaments and decorative motifs were taught. Then followed a training in the drawing of the mythical animals and designs with men and beasts in them. The master would then take his apprentice to assist him in his work at the temple. At first the student would help the teacher only in grinding colours, then in priming the surfaces, then in applying ground colours and finally in filling the outlines sketched by his master. Experience was thus given in practical work. In the course of time when the teacher was satisfied about the sincerity, devotion and ability of the apprentice, he would impart the trade secrets. Throughout the course the technique of the profession was taught in relation to real things and problems.¹

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¹ Coomaraswamy, *The Indian Craftsman*, pp. 88-90.

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Theoretical and Moral Training :—Nor was theoretical and moral training neglected. A working knowledge of Sanskrit was imparted to advanced workers in sculpture, painting and architecture, as most of the theoretical works on the subjects were written in that language. A knowledge of Purāṇas and works on iconography was necessary both for the sculptor and the painter in order to chisel or paint properly the various themes of the Pauranic history and mythology. Architects and engineers used to receive the necessary grounding in mathematics also. The apprentice was always asked to remember that he was expected to be a pious and honest person abiding by the rules prescribed for the artists by sacred texts and tradition. The doctor was to remember that he was to save his patient even at the cost of his own life, if necessary.

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Efficiency of Training : The training under the above apprenticeship system was fairly efficient, for it was both theoretical and practical and given in the workshop itself. It helped to raise the general level of the skill and workmanship in several arts and crafts. Indian artisans took no time in manufacturing scrapers and sponges that they first saw being used by Greek invaders. Fine thread and wool were used to manufacture sponges and they were then dyed, so that they looked similar to Greek articles. The efficiency of the Punjab ship-builders may be inferred from the fact that they could supply to Alexander the Great a huge fleet, probably of not less than 1,000 boats, in about three months' time. The skill in mining, metallurgy, smelting and welding attained by ancient Indians was of a high order; experts are still wondering how the composition of the famous Iron Pillar near Kutub Minar at Delhi could be made so flawless by the metallurgists of Chandragupta II (c. 375-413 A. D.) as to prevent its rusting in spite of its being exposed to rain and sunshine for more than fifteen centuries. In the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya, we find a fairly accurate knowledge of the nature of the ores of gold, silver, copper, etc., and of the processes by which they were purified (II, 12-3). The weaving industry could command the markets of the greater part of the Old World before it was crushed by the advent of the steam engine in the 19th century. In sculpture we find a continuous progress from c. 200 B. C. and a readiness to learn even from the foreigner. Paintings as illustrated at Ajanta show a high development of the art. The beautiful cave temples of western India and the graceful as well as huge shrines of Orissa and South India show that the Indian architect could solve a number of difficulties, which we think it hardly possible to overcome except with the help of the modern machinery.

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Was Professional Education narrow?: Prima facie the professional education as given by the apprenticeship system seems to be narrow; the student seems to have been taught only what the tradition and works of his profession had to teach. There is, however, some historical evidence to show that many of the artists and artisans of the age used to possess a good amount of cultural and literary education as well. Thus some of the members of the weavers' guilds at Daśapura (in Malva) used to take active interest in astronomy and folklore during the 5th century A. D. There is no evidence to prove or disprove that what was true of this guild at Mandsore was true of the average artisan of the period. The conclusion may, however, be hazarded that down to the 8th or the 9th century A. D. artisans of the highest grade used to receive a fair amount of liberal education. Later on owing to the decline of literacy and the low esteem in which arts and handicrafts began to be held, there was a setback and artisans began to blindly follow the processes that were handed down to them by tradition.

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