Education in Ancient India c8.s3: The Age of the Upanishads and the Sūtras

Education in Ancient India c8.s3

Language: English

The Age of the Upanishads and the Sūtras

VEDIC STUDIES; METHOD CHANGED: The Vedic literature began to be universally regarded as revealed in this period and that honour was gradually extended to the Brāhmaṇas¹ and the Upanishads also. Vedic schools had to perform the onerous task of preserving this great and growing literature. The art of writing was known by this time, but its aid was not taken for this purpose, as it was believed that it would be irreligious to do so². The theory that the slightest mistake in the recitation of the Vedic hymns would not only prevent the realisation of the expected reward, but would also bring about a disaster on the reciter³, gained ground in this period and necessitated the devotion of a large part of the energy of the rising generation to the task of the accurate memorising of the Vedic literature. Extraordinary precautions were taken to prevent the corruption of the Vedic text by devising the *pada-pāṭha*,⁴ *krama-pāṭha*, *jaṭā-pāṭha* and *ghana-pāṭha*, and all these had to be committed to memory by those who desired to be regarded as experts in the Vedic lore. This further increased the burden on the memory. As centuries rolled on, it became more and more difficult for the Vedic expert to memorise this extensive and growing literature and also to understand its meaning; for the spoken dialect was becoming more and more differentiated from the Vedic language. It was therefore decided towards the end of this period that some Vedic scholars should devote their energies to the mechanical memorising of this extensive literature with a view to prevent its loss, while others should address themselves to the problem of its interpretation by studying commentaries, etymology, lexicography, etc. But for this differentiation of function, the extensive Vedic literature could not have been preserved for posterity. This arrangement no doubt exposed some Brahmanas to the taunt of being mere parrot-like reciters of the Vedic hymns. It is gratifying to find that they did not mind it in the wider interest of the preservation of the national literature and culture.

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¹ The prose literature devoted to the task of explaining the rituals, legends and knotty points about the sacrifices enjoined in the Vedic hymns was known by this name. It should not be mistaken with the members of the Brahmana caste.

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² Cf. वेदानां लेखकाश्चैव सर्वे निरयगामिनः ।

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³ मंत्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्याप्रयुक्तो न तमर्थमाह । स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतोऽपराधात् ।

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⁴ The *pada-pāṭha* required the students to memorise each word in the Vedic hymns separately after restoring it to its original form. Supposing a, b, and c were the three opening words of a hymn, the *krama-pāṭha* recited them as *ab, bc*, etc., the *jaṭā-pāṭha* as *ab, ba, ab*, etc., and the *ghana-pāṭha* as *ab, ba, abc, cba, abc*. The reader will now get some idea of the onerousness of the task of memorising these *pāṭhas*.

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New Topics of Study : The period under review was the most creative era in the history of the Hindu intellect; it recorded remarkable achievements in the realm of philosophy, sacred law, epic literature, philology, grammar, astronomy and several fine and useful arts like sculpture, medicine and shipbuilding. On the one hand the development of these branches naturally created a new fascination for the students of the age, and on the other, the rise of the protestant movements led by the Upanishadic, Jain and Buddhist thinkers told on the popularity of the Vedic religion and literature. The current language had now become very widely differentiated from the Vedic idiom and thus created a new difficulty in the Vedic studies. As a combined consequence of all these factors, Vedic studies fell into background towards the end of this period and greater attention began to be paid to the cultivation of the new branches of learning referred to above.

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Combination of Liberal and Useful Education : Several references in the contemporary literature indicate that an attempt was made in this period to combine liberal with professional or useful education. Graduates of this age are usually described as well versed in the Vedas as well as in eighteen *sippas*, i. e. practical arts and sciences.¹ These latter included archery, military art, medicine, magic, snake charming, conveyancing, administrative training, music, dancing, painting, engineering, etc². It is of course clear that no graduate could get mastery in all the Vedas as well as in all the *sippas* as is suggested by some passages; it is however clear from some references in Jātakas that literary education was combined with one of the useful professions referred to above in the famous centres of education like Taxila. This practice enabled the average literary student to stand on his own legs.

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¹ *Chh. Up.*, VII. 1. 2. *Mil. P.* Vol. I. p ; 247

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² See Appendix IV

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THE AGE OF THE SMṚITIS, PURĀṆAS AND NIBANDHAS.

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(1st century A. D. to *c.* 1200 A. D.)

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Vedic Studies : The Vedic studies fell further into background during this period. A sufficient number of Brahmanas however was always available to preserve and transmit the Vedic literature to the generations unborn. They used to do their work very thoroughly, for the experts among them would memorise not only the Vedic hymns, but also their *pada-pāṭha krama-pāṭha*, *jaṭā-pāṭha and ghana-pāṭha*.¹ They used to master the details connected with the numerous Vedic sacrifices also. Some of them used to study two, three or even four Vedas and were therefore known as Dvivedins, Trivedins, and Chaturvedins respectively. Many donees of the copperplate grants of this period bear these surnames; they could have become eligible for them only by prolonged and almost life-long devotion to the cause of Vedic studies. This devotion was almost tragic; it did not bring any adequate pecuniary compensation, and required them to memorise texts, which not they, but others, could understand and expound. The number of the Vedic scholars, devoting themselves to the task of interpreting and expounding Vedic hymns, dwindled down very considerably during this period. Vedic studies therefore usually meant the mere cramming of the sacred texts and were often commented upon very adversely by some thinkers of the age, some of whom went to the extent of declaring that the intellect is deadened and rendered useless by the parrot-like cramming of the Vedic hymns.² Kings of this age were more disposed to extend their patronage to poets, who could compliment them by composing neat poems in their honour,³ than to Vedic Brahmanas, who could recite hymns, which neither they themselves nor their hearers could understand. New branches of learning like philosophy and *belles lettres* also appealed more powerfully to the intellect and emotions of the rising generation. In spite of these adverse and discouraging factors Vaidika Brahmanas continued to address themselves to the almost thankless task of memorising the vast Vedic literature, which could not have been preserved but for their devotion to duty.

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¹ See *ante*, p. 147.

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² नानुवाकहता बुद्धिव्र्व्यवहारक्षमा भवेत् । अनुवाकहता या तु न सा सर्व्वगामिनी ॥ Śukra, III. 261

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³ The Vedic Brahmanas are sarcastically described by the door-keepers of king Bhoja as follows:—राजमाषनिभैर्दन्तैः कटिविन्यस्त-पाणयः । द्वारि तिष्ठन्ति राजेन्द्र छान्दसाः श्लोकशत्रवः ॥ They complain (Continued from the last page.)

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An age of Specialisation : We have already mentioned the new branches of study that came into prominence during the preceding period. The present age made its own contribution to the march of knowledge by further developing astronomy, astrology, poetics, classical Sanskrit literature, Dharmaśāstra (sacred and secular law), logic, and the different systems of orthodox and heterodox philosophy. As the help of paper, printing and cheap books was not available for the preservation and propagation of knowledge, the age naturally emphasised on specialisation, which gave a great impetus to the development of the different branches of knowledge.

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The Ascendancy of Sanskrit : During the earlier centuries of this period, upto *c.* 300 A. D., some kings like the Sātavāhanas, the Ikshwākus and the Pallavas had championed the cause of Prakrit and directed that vernaculars alone should be used even in their official and public documents. As however the period advanced, the attraction of

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to Kālidāsa about their neglect as follows :—अस्माकं समप्रवेदविदामपि भोजः किमपि नार्पयति । भवादृशां हि यथेष्टं दत्ते । ततोऽस्माभिः कवित्व-विधानधियात्रागतम् । Kālidāsa then helps them. *Bhojaprabandha*, v. 86 and following.

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Sanskrit became so irresistible that some kings like the Guptas went to the extent of ordering the use of that language even in their harems¹. Prakrits ceased to be used for public documents and even the Buddhists and the Jains disregarded the advice of the founders of their religions and began to compose works in Sanskrit. The revival of Sanskrit during this period produced results more or less similar to those brought about in Europe by the discovery and study of the classics during the time of the Renaissance. All the attention of the educated classes was devoted to the cultivation of Sanskrit. This led to the neglect of vernaculars through which alone the masses could be approached. This eventually tended to confine education only to higher classes.

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¹ Kāvyamīmāṃsā, p. 50.

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Preliminary Sanskrit Course : The study of the different branches of knowledge that were flourishing in this age was preceded by a preliminary course in Sanskrit. After the Upanayana ceremony at about the age of 8, all students used to memorise a few important Vedic hymns necessary for their daily or ceremonial needs. Then they used to devote four or five years to the study of elementary Sanskrit grammar and literature. At about the age of 13 or 14, the student used to be able to understand Sanskrit works on subjects like logic, philosophy, poetics, astronomy and mathematics. He then used to select one of these subjects for specialisation and devote about ten years to its study.

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Popularity of Grammar and Astrology : Among the subjects cultivated during this period, the courses of advanced grammar and astronomy-cum-astrology were very popular, as attested to both by Yuan Chwang and Alberuni. The demand for experts in grammar was as keen during this age as the demand for the teachers trained in English is today. Every school for higher education had to engage several grammarians in order to give the necessary instructions in Sanskrit language, which was the key subject. The age believed in astrology and astrologers were in great demand throughout the country for preparing and interpreting almanacs and prognosticating future events. The royal courts also used to engage the services of several astrologers.

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The Course in Sanskrit Literature. The students of this subject were naturally required first to complete their course in grammar and kosha (vocabulary) and then enjoined a study of some famous authors like Kālidāsa, Bhartṛhari or Bāṇa. Particular attention was paid to prosody and poetics, and students were expected not only to understand the classical authors, but also to compose fairly good poems imitating their style. In order to get a general knowledge of the culture of the race, they were also required to study the epics, the Purāṇas and traditional stories. They were further trained to be good debators; the ability to defend one's own position in learned assemblies and the capacity to compose a good poem in a very short time were regarded as the most important criteria of good scholarship.

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The Courses in Smritis and Puranas: Almost as popular as the courses in grammar and astrology were the courses in Purāṇas and Smritis whose hold over the popular mind during this age was almost as great as that of the Vedic literature in the earlier periods. Popular Hindu religion had greatly changed its complexion during this period and its theories and practices could be ascertained only from Smṛitis and Purāṇas, which therefore had to be mastered even by the village priest. The courses in these subjects prescribed a good mastery of Sanskrit grammar and classical Sanskrit literature and a special study of select Sūtras, Smṛitis and Purāṇas. More emphasis was laid on understanding the meaning of the works concerned than on committing them to memory. Usually the students of Smṛitis and Purāṇas took the help of a manuscript when expounding their contents; there was no prejudice against utilising the art of writing for preserving them.

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Courses in Logic and Philosophy : The age we are reviewing was reverberating with controversies among the followers of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Within the fold of Hinduism itself, the followers of Sāṅkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Mīmānsā and Vedānta were contending for supremacy. It was but natural that these controversies should have given an impetus to the study of metaphysics. After getting a preliminary grounding in grammar and literature, the students of the subject used to select one of the systems of philosophy for specialisation and master its most advanced and difficult works. The study of philosophy presupposed a study of logic during this period; so students of philosophy used to devote considerable time to the study of logic also. The young graduate in philosophy was however expected not only to expound and defend his own system but also to attack and refute those of his opponents. The course therefore included a comparative study of the contending systems of metaphysics. Hindu philosophers like Gauḍapāda and Śaṅkarāchārya and Buddhist scholars like Nāgārjuna and Vasubandhu used to master the systems of their opponents as well. In a famous philosophical college situated in a sylvan retreat in the Vindhya mountain presided over by Divākarasena, a Brahmana convert to Buddhism, students of Hinduism, Buddhism and Śvetāmbara and Digambara Jainism studied together side by side under the same principal.¹ Such an arrangement naturally presupposes a comparative study of the rival systems leading to the broadening of the outlook and the deepening of the scholarship of the average student of the institution.

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¹ Kāvyamīmānsā, pp. 49-50.

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¹ *Harshacharit*, Chap. VIII.

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Courses for Laymen in Buddhist Colleges : For reasons already explained at p. 72, Buddhist monastic colleges began to take up the education of the laymen also from about the beginning of the Christian era. The courses prescribed for them were not radically different from those obtaining under sister institutions working under the aegis of Hinduism. Students started with a study of Sanskrit grammar and literature, which lasted for seven or eight years. They were also given some grounding in Pāli; as pious Buddhists, they had to master some passages from the Pāli canon. At about the age of 15 or 16, their higher education commenced. Those who wanted to specialise in Sanskrit literature, Dharmaśāstra, astrology-cum-astronomy, medicine or works on polity and administration used to follow practically the same course as was in vogue in the Hindu colleges of the period. Those however who wanted to specialise in logic or philosophy used to select works by Buddhist authors on these subjects like Hetuvidyā, Abhidharmaśāstra, Nyāyānusāraśāstra etc. The followers of the Hīnayāna school used to specialise in Tripīṭakas and other early works of orthodox Buddhism, whereas those of the Mahāyāna school used to study the works of their famous scholars like Nāgārjuna, Vasubandhu and Dharmakīrti. Besides mastering their own works on philosophy, the Buddhist scholars used to study Hindu works on metaphysics as well.

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Courses for Monks : The curriculum prescribed for the monk scholar was naturally somewhat different. It did not include any special study of secular sciences like poetics, literature or astrology, but was concerned principally with theological subjects. For ten years after his admission as a novice, the monk-student was under the direct guidance and control of his preceptor, who used to initiate him in the study of Pāli and Sanskrit. When these languages were properly mastered, a thorough study of the sacred texts, (the Tripīṭakas,) was started. When this was over, relatively recent works on Buddhist religion and philosophy were mastered. Hindu systems of religion, logic and philosophy were then carefully studied in order to meet the Hindu opponent on his own ground. It is interesting to note that Yuan Chwang, who had undertaken the arduous and perilous journey to India primarily for studying Buddhist scriptures, spent two fifth the period of his stay in India in studying Sanskrit works on Hinduism. The education of the novice did not terminate with his admission to the Order as a full-fledged monk. For, the Buddhist monk was expected to be a lifelong student like the Hindu Naiṣṭhika Brahmachārin.

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Selection of Text-books : We have no definite information about the text-books prescribed for the various courses in different institutions during different centuries. These must have gone on changing in course of time when better and more up-to-date books written by competent authorities became available. The selection of text books was usually governed by considerations of merit alone. An author had to submit his work to a synod of scholars at a famous centre of learning like Pāṭaliputra or Benares¹, and if it was found to be a work of merit by that body, it received its imprimatur, which helped its acceptance and spread in provincial towns. It should be however noted that no pecuniary gain was likely to accrue to an author by his book being prescribed in several institutions; for there was no press and copyright in ancient India. The adoption of a work as a text book in the schools of a province however increased the reputation of its author, and we sometimes come across writers adopting rather questionable means to get their books accepted. Ugrabhūti, the teacher of king Anaṅgapāla of the Punjab (c. 1010-c. 1020) is said to have induced his royal pupil to distribute two lakhs of dirhams (= about Rs. 60,000) among the Pandits of Kashmir in order to overcome successfully their reluctance to accept his new work on grammar called Śiṣya-hitā-vṛtti². Such cases however were probably few. Usually books prescribed in a particular school were in vogue at the centre where the principal and teachers of the school were educated. Hindus, Buddhists and Jains would often prefer works written by authors of their own persuasion in the case of a subject like logic, which was cultivated by all schools.

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¹ Pāṇini is reported to have come all the way to Pāṭaliputra from Śalātura in N. W. F. P, in order to get his famous grammar approved by the synod at that famous capital. Śaṅkarāchārya came to Benares from Malabar in order to seek the imprimatur of the Pandits of that place over his philosophical works.

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² Sachau, Alberuni, Vol. I, pp. 135-6.

Linked texts (6)

Chāndogyopaniṣad — Sanskrit
Milindapañha — Pāli
Aṣṭādhyāyī — Pāṇini, Sanskrit
Kāvyamīmāṃsā — Rājaśekhara, Sanskrit
Harṣacarita — Bāṇabhaṭṭa, Sanskrit
玄奘 — Classical Chinese