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History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c33.s7: Water Transport

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c33.s7

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English

Contents

Water Transport

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Apart from overland trade, river and sea-routes also came to be used extensively. Source materials tell us of Indian merchants undertaking dangerous sea voyages that lasted for as long as six months. Vessels set out for Śrīlaṅkā, Burma and Arabia. Many Indians were also despatched to the Hellenistic countries. Spices precious stones, ivory objects and rare kinds of woods were traded.

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According to Strabo, the River Oxus, in the time of Alexander was quite navigable, so that goods from India were carried down the river to the Caspian sea on their way to the West.

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According to the Buddhist texts, an important route led south-west from Sāvatthi (Srāvasti) to Patiṭṭhāna, (Prathiṣṭāna) with six halts and frequent crossing of rivers. The Vinaya texts mention boats going up the Ganges to Sahajati and up the Yamuna to Kausāmbi. According to the Jātaka tales, there were no bridges, but only forting places and ferries for crossing rivers.

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Waterway was considered more profitable since it required less labour and hence less cost. This is known through Kauṭilya’s observations. According to him,

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i) Waterways cannot be used in all seasons.

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ii) It is also risky without adequate remedies.

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He further alludes to the river transport as the third waterway - the first two being i) along the coast, ii) midway along the ocean. Kauṭilya criticized a river fort as he felt it could be crossed. This fear probably stemmed from Alexander’s invasion and the defeat of Porus, through the former’s powerful “bridges of boats” with which he crossed rivers.

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The *Jātakas* mention that boats went west via Pāṭaliputra, Prayāga and Varanasi.

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According to *Mahāvaṃsa*, Mahendra and Saṅghamitrā started their voyage to Ceylon through the boats across the Ganges from Pāṭaliputra.

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The *Periplus* saw large Indian vessels in the Malabar coast that were known as Sangara, root of the word ‘*Sangada*’. In the first century A.D. the Egyptian traders used to send the ships to India and Indian merchants according to *Periplus* took up permanent residence in the island of Dioscorides (Socotra).

Pre-Christian Era - Sunga, Kṣatrapa-Śātavāhana periods

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A network of roads developed early in the Christian era from this old route linking all the important cities of the Peninsula. Terracotta wheels without spokes and hub continued to be in use as is testified from the findings from stratified deposits at Varanasi.

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A cart frame has been found depicted in a terracotta tablet known from Bangarh datable to about 2nd century B.C. This cart frame has a curved tip. The frame is of horizontal bamboo posts. It possesses a central axle evenly spaced for balance.

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In the latter part of the 2nd century B.C. some changes occur in the technological features, Broader frames, thicker yokes and refined cart wheels seem to develop during this period. There is more variety in the treatment of outer frames which indicates the sophistication of its use, and its growing popularity in the urban centres.

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Two important types are found:

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1) Cart-frames depicting features like axle, pole and wheels. Example is a specimen from Atranjikhera datable to the second half of 2nd century B.C. It is a typical cart frame drawn by single or two bullocks - possibly a popular mode of transport during the period.

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2) The second type depicts the animals in front with an open back, and passengers seated inside the vehicle. This type seems to have been popular at Kauśāmbī, which has yielded one of the best specimens carrying four men and two women (Margabandhu).

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The earlier specimens datable to 2nd and 1st century B.C. are more ornate while those of latter times (datable upto 2nd century A.D.) are crude. But these seem to be larger vehicles to accommodate more passengers.

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One T.C. Plaque from Pāṭaliputra has a warrior aiming bow and arrow. A charioteer holds the animals. The scene depicts the wheel in motion. The ovaloid feature indicates the fast rotating wheel. The entire plaque is a unique representation interpreted as Lord Sūrya. A technologically similar model from Kauśāmbī (in conventional representation) has been found. These are probably datable to 1st century B.C.

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Toy models from Brahamapuri, Carsada, Rairh, Raṅgmahal, Sambhar and Taxila are very similar to modern types. These are available in copper bronze and terracotta. The types consist of simple carts (ekkā), bullock carts, horse-drawn chariots, light racing chariot, etc. These have transverse holes for axle under-neath the body and another hole for the pole in front. The wheels show heavy and clearly defined hubs and fellies (Margabandhu).

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Some of the examples have circular projections at the rear with 11 bars which not only kept the weight balanced but also provided more space for sitting and luggage. Brahmapuri has yielded evidence of covered wagons made of copper.

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A two-wheeled vehicle has been recorded from Sirkap(c100 A.D) which according to Marshall “appeared to be a sort of light racing chariot”. Similar transport vehicles was also represented at Brahmapuri (Maharashtra).

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Literary references testify that merchants and traders moved along in caravans with their commodities so as to avoid being attacked.

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Spoked wheels with one hub-on the outer side come into existence around the beginning of the Christian era.

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Availability of bridles, checkbars and stirrups suggest that horse-drawn chariots were common during this period.

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The chief material evidence can be divided into

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1) Rock paintings

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2) Parts of bridle-equipment

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3) Toy vehicles

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4) Sculptured representation of temple-reliefs. A grave at Nagpur has yielded an early pair of stirrups and a snaffle. This is similar to a specimen from Taxila and has been suggested closer to 3rd and 4th centuries B.C.

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A number of seals depict chariots. On a seal from Jhusi (2nd century B.C), the hindlegs of horses and a chariot-wheel are visible with 2 persons sitting in it.

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From a plaque from Bhita (Varanasi dist.) dated 2nd century B.C. a chariot is discernable.

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Stirrup bits at Sambhar (200 B.C) made of iron has been identified as a child’s stirrup. Chariots are also seen depicted on the stupa gateways of Sāñcī. The sculptured panels are normally ascribed to 1st century A.D.

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Sāñcī Stupa I: Front of Southern gateway - middle architrave - Aśoka’s visit to the stupa of Rāmagrāma. The chariot is drawn by horses with complete bridle equipment. The wheel has about 14 spokes, elongated in a diamond shape. It depicts infantry, cavalry, elephantry and chariots.

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Stupa-I

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Northern pillar of Eastern gateway shows King Suddhodhana leaving his town in a chariot accompanied by an elephant with a rider. The Sātavāhana times indulged in great maritime activity. This is evidenced by the Andhra coinage which frequently feature a ship with two masts.

Gupta Period

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Internal and foreign trade expanded to a remarkable degree, during this period (4th-6th century A.D.). Many uninhabited regions had been settled, transport was better organized and trade routes more closely linked. The economic specialization of various areas and zones made exchange of commodities essential. Under the Guptas the state had devoted particular attention to the construction of roads and communications. Yet the exchange between various parts of the country was still of limited nature. Roads were not always suitable for long journeys and traders encountered a good many problems. Rivers were now being made much fuller use of. This applied in particular to the Ganges and the Indus.

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The Ganges Valley was the principal trade area from which branched off trade routes leading to many parts of the country. The main trade centres in that area were Bṛhukkaccha (Barygaz) in the west, Patiālā in the Indus delta, Puṣkalavatī in the North-West and Tāmralipti (modern Tamluk) in the east. In Eastern India, Varanasi, Kauśāmbī and Pāṭaliputra and Ujjain were well known for their high quality wares.

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Fehien’s travel to the various Buddhist places and his account attest to existence of good roads and transport system during the Gupta period. In the course of his travel he visited Vaiśakha, Napikā, Kapilavastu, Ramagrāma, Kusinagara, Vaiśālī, Pāṭaliputra, Rājagrha, Gayā, Vārānasi, Kauśāmbī, Campā. He further states that the roads were safe, whereas two centuries later Hieun Tsang was twice assaulted.

Post-Gupta

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A host of traders and merchants carried the products of their various industries from one end of the country to the other by means of boats and bullock-carts.

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Traders and merchants of various descriptions and their fabulous wealth are frequently referred to in books and inscriptions (R.C. Majumdar).

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Trade and industry were well developed and organised. The institution called Śreṇī was a corporation of men following the same trade, occupation or craft and resembled the guides of medieval Europe. Almost every industry had its guild which laid down rules and regulations as a definite constitution. They maintained armies for the use of which wide roads were maintained.

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Hieun Tsang gives information about the roads during the reign of Harsha Vardhana. He says that the roads were not safe. The Chinese traveller moved from one Buddhist place to another, visited even Kāñcipura and has left behind graphic details of the prevailing conditions.

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Land pilots were supposed to have been the most important persons in a desert camp. The traders and their entourage travelled by nights, and rested by day. The route was chalked out by the land pilot by constantly watching the stars.

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The paintings of Ajanta give ample proof of shipping activities. One of the paintings shows a vessel with high stern and three oblong sails attached to three upright masts. The vessel is of the agramandira type as defined in the Yuktikalpataru. This work can be dated to 11th century A.D. and gives graphic information on ship building in ancient India. The fact that the painting (dated earlier than the work) depicts a vessels that corresponds to a later description shows that the models did not undergo much change. Two types of ships are also mentioned, *Sāmānya* for inland traffic and *Viśeṣa* for sea traffic. Each is in turn divided into various categories.

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Various classifications of colours, wood, and even decorations also seem to have dominated in the ancient days. Sometimes, hundreds of bullock-carts gathering together and forming a caravan traversed from one end of the country to the other and occasionally we hear of bands of volunteer police being hired to protect the merchandise on the way from thieves and robbers. By means of rivers, canals and highways, the commodities were despatched to the ports and harbours with a view to their export to foreign countries in sea-going vessels.

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