Krishna Murthy, K. Former Professor and Head of the Department of History and Indian Culture, Sri Sathya Sai Institute of Higher Learning, 43/10A, N.R.Peta, Kurnool 518004.

v1.c5.31

Krishnamurthy, Radha ‘Subhodaya’, 38, Eleventh Main Road Malleswaram West, Bangalore 560055.

v1.c5.32

Mate, M.S. Former Professor, Deccan College, 1896 Sadashive Peth, Pune 411030.

v1.c5.33

Mukherjee, B.N. Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture, University of Calcutta, Calcutta.

v1.c5.34

Nigam, M.L. Former Director, Salarjung Museum, Hyderabad 500002.

v1.c5.35

Pant, Manju Pandit G.B.Pant Government Museum, Almora 263601.

v1.c5.36

Patel, Krishna Amin National Institute of Design, Paldi, Ahmedabad-380007.

v1.c5.37

Raman, K.V. Former Professor & Head, Department of Ancient History & Archaeology, University of Madras, Madras.

v1.c5.38

Roy, Mira 80 B, Vivekananda Road, Ground Floor, Calcutta 700006.

v1.c5.39

Selvarangan, R. Former Deputy Director, Leather Research Institute, 52 First Main Road, Masant Nagar, Madras 600090.

v1.c5.40

Sharma, A.K. c/o B.R.Singh, Vice Chancellor, Bihar University, Muzaffarpur.

v1.c5.41

Sharma, Akhila Nand Former Head of the Department of Śalya, State Ayurvedic College, Varanasi, B 36/21, Kh-2A, Kaiwalya Dham Ext., Durgakund, Varanasi 221005.

v1.c5.42

Singh, R.D. Former Professor, Department of Mining Engineering, Indian School of Mines, 37 A, Ravindra Puri, Lane No.5, Varanasi 221005.

v1.c5.43

**Singh, R.H.** Professor and Head, Department of Kāyacikitsā, Banaras Hindu University, Bharat-Bharati, 6 Ganga Bagh, Lanka, Varanasi 221005.

v1.c5.44

**Srinivasan, T.M.** PCL Division, Indian Institute of Chem. Tech.. Hyderabad 500007.

v1.c5.45

**Varadarajan, Lotika** Flat No. 4A, Giridhar Apartments, 28 Ferozeshah Road, New Delhi 110001.

v1.c5.46

**Vyas, R.T.** Director, Oriental Institute (MS University of Baroda), Opp. Palace Gate, Palace Abad, Vadodara 390002.

| Fig. | | Page |
| 12. | Three typical Copper Hoard artifacts from Bisauli, Dist. Badaun. | 42 |
| 13. | A flat copper object found at Lothal, a Harappan site in Gujarat | 44 |
| 14. | A rock art illustration from Mirzapur indicating the use of harpoons for big game hunting. | 45 |

v1.c5.48

| 1. | Sites of ancient copper mines in India | 52 |
| 2. | Sites of ancient gold mines in India | 57 |
| 3. | Map showing old workings at Maski | 59 |
| 4. | Wooden trolley used by ancients for tramming | 60 |
| 5. | Wooden rings used by ancients as turn table | 61 |
| 6. | Sites of ancient Lead, Zinc and Silver mines | 64 |
| 7. | Plan of old workings at Zawar Mala | 66 |
| 8. | A view of an ancient stope at Zawar | 67 |
| 9. | A view of chimney foot-holds | 71 |
| 10. | Plan of old workings at Rampura-Agucha | 73 |
| 11. | A woven basket | 74 |
| 12. | Vertical supports morticed into sole plates | 75 |
| 13. | Clay retorts | 76 |

v1.c5.49

| 1. | Life cycle of Archaeological metallic artifacts | 82 |
| 2. | Delay-time for various innovations and their commercialization | 83 |
| 3. | Sanskrit text regarding production of steel as mentioned in Rg veda in R̥tca 9; 12.2 | 83 |
| 4. | Sanskrit text on the evolution of iron and other metals as mentioned in Yajurveda in Chapter 8 | 85 |
| 5. | Early ‘Ore Hearth’, Lead Smelting furnace as described by Raistrick | 91 |
| 6. | Photograph showing an ancient copper mining (a) trench, (b) mouth of shaft at Surda Mines, Singhbhum | 95 |
| 7. | Cu-Fe-S-O equilibrium diagram (at 1300°C) indicating the instability of metallic iron in presence of CuO, and ultra low oxygen pressure required for its production | 96 |
| 8. | Microstructure of copper button produced by the Ayurvedic method showing dendrites of copper and presence of CuS, CuO and slag inclusions, Mag. × 100. 9. radio-carbon dating of some of the iron objects found at different archaeological sites in Indian subcontinent | 98 |
| 9. | 14C dating of some of the iron objects found in different sites | 99 |
| 10. | Sketch of some of the surgical tools designed by Susruta | 102 |
| 11. | Iron swords and daggers found at Tinnevelley (400 B.C.) | 103 |

v1.c5.50

| Fig | | Page |
| 12. | Some of the iron objects excavated at Atranjikhera (~1000 + 200 B.C.) | 104 |
| 13. | Some of the iron tools and objects found at Atranjikhera (~1000 + 200 B.C.) | 104 |
| 14. | Iron Pillar at Delhi and its microstructure at the bottom of the pillar | 105 |
| 15. | Dhar Iron Pillar broken into three pieces. The change from square to octagonal section at the top can be seen | 106 |
| 16. | Iron beams (12 century A.D.) lying at the Sun temple of Konark | 107 |
| 17. | Iron Pillar at Kondacheri | 108 |
| 18. | Iron Trident (Triśūl) at Tanginath temple near Netarhat (M.P.) | 109 |
| 19. | Iron smelting furnace found at Naikund (700 B.C.)- Sketch | 110 |
| 20. | Reproduction of wall painting from a iron working site in Japan. This painting shows that Japanese craftmen also worshiped ‘Lord Asura’ as in India | 111 |
| 21. | (a) Map of Central India showing the region in which ‘Agarias’ were active in the production of iron. (b) Agaria Tribe | 112 |
| 22. | Iron smelting furnace from Salem showing the use of former made of reed to make the inner contour of the furnace | 113 |
| 23. | Artists impression of the operation of iron smelting furnace using two men to operate a pair of ‘Bhāṭhī’ | 113 |
| 24. | Primitive blast furnace of Nagpur region | 114 |
| 25. | Photograph of the iron smelting furnace found at Lohārpārā in Bastar | 115 |
| 26. | Line diagram of the Bastar furnace | 115 |
| 27. | Line diagram of the twin shaft furnace from Malabar (as described by Buchnan). | 116 |
| 28. | Iron smelting furnace having asymetrical shaft (as described by Mahamud | 117 |
| 29. | Line diagram of the Iron smelting furnace reconstructed and operated at Bishnupur | 121 |
| 30. | Photograph of a pair of ancient bellows made from hide | 122 |
| 31. | Line diagram of ‘Aṅgār Koṣṭhi’ as described in Rasaratna Samuccaya | 125 |
| 32. | Classification of Iron-Carbon alloys as described in Rasaratna Samuccaya | 126 |
| 33. | Fe-C Equilibrium diagram showing the X and Y ranges of the Fe-C alloys produced in ancient times | 127 |
| 34. | Watering structure seen on ‘Wootz’ steel swords | 131 |
| 35. | Stem, leaf and flower of Cassia Auriculata (Avaram) | 133 |
| 36. | Macrostructure of a Wootz Steel ingot | 134 |
| 37. | Photograph of a Wootz Steel making crucible (from National Museum, Madras) | 134 |

v1.c5.51

| Fig | | Page |
| 38. | Sketch of the Wootz making crucible | 135 |
| 39. | Inside view of an Ancient Zinc ore mine at Zawar. Inside view of the same mine showing wooden scaffold and support | 138 |
| 40. | Some mining tools of iron found inside the Mochia mine, Zawar | 138 |
| 41. | Stone Pestal and Hammer used by ancient Zn smelters at Zawar | 139 |
| 42. | Artists impression of down draft distillation apparatus used for production of Hg, Zn, etc | 140 |
| 43. | Photograph shows two of the zinc retorts found at Zawar | 141 |
| 44. | Sketch of the complete zinc retort furnace, showing retorts and condenser vessel in position | 142 |
| 45. | Ag-Cu alloy phase diagram | 148 |
| 46. | Copper rich side of the Cu-Sn alloy phase diagram | 149 |
| 47. | Chinese system of production of brass using a bent tube for the conduction of zinc vapour to the crucible containing molten copper | 150 |
| 48. | Copper rich part of the Cu-Zn phase diagram and change in mechanical properties | 151 |
| 49. | Photograph of a brass chandelier of 8th century A.D. showing the chain cast in one piece | 155 |
| 50. | Five steps of the traditional method of casting brass and bronze idols in South India using ‘cire perdue’ process | 156 |
| 51. | A Bronze casting of Lord Nataraja made by ‘cire perdue’ process | 157 |
| 52. | Terracota mould disks for coins and their assembly ready for casting | 158 |
| 53. | Photograph of an early iron cannon (Tanjor) made by fixing iron pieces inside number of iron rings | 161 |
| 54. | Drawing shows the probable method of joining two iron blocks in Dhar iron pillar | 162 |
| 55. | Photograph shows the fixing of a massive iron square ring to form the ornamented top of Delhi’s iron pillar | 162 |
| 56. | Fe-C phase diagram showing microstructure of five typical Fe-C alloys and temperature ranges for common thermo-mechanical treatment | 164 |
| 57. | Some of the smithy tools found at Taxila (3rd century B.C. to 5th century A.D.) | 166 |
| 58. | Some other smithy tools found at the same site | 167 |
| 59. | Sketch of a reverberatory furnace described by Mahmud | 168 |

v1.c5.52

| 1. | Chalcolithic Black and Red Ware (all except the one in the centre, top row) | 190 |
| 2. | Characteristic Harappan pottery forms | 193 |
| 3. | Kayatha pottery | 196 |
| 4. | A Malwa ware bowl from Navdatoli (M.P.) | 197 |

v1.c5.53

| Fig | Page |
| 5. | A pottery kiln of the Malwa period | 198 |
| 6. | Jorwe ware | 199 |
| 7. | Mughal glazed ware | 203 |
| 8. | Chinese porcelain, a bowl from Ahmednagar (Maharashtra) | 204 |

v1.c5.54

| 1. | Glass bangles from Prakash, Dt. Dhulia, Maharashtra | 209 |
| 2. | Glass Tile - Copper Red Glass from Khairahdih c. A.D.100 | 210 |
| 3. | Early Indian Glass Seals and Sealings - 1-5 Patna | 211 |
| 4. | Coloured glass beads from Arikamedu. Old French excavations (Courtesy : Pondicherry Museum) | 212 |
| 5. | (1) Detailed view of glass seal from Maheshwar (c. 300 B.C.). (2) Glass Flasks from Sirkap (Taxila): Saka-Persian levels (c. First century A.D.). (3) Glass Bowls from Arikamedu of Roman origin (First century A.D.) | 214 |
| 6. | Glass Objects from Satavahana sites in the Deccan | 215 |
| 7. | Simple-wound bead | 219 |
| 8. | Multiple-wound bead | 219 |
| 9. | Drawn beads | 220 |
| 10. | Evidence for the tube-drawing process: Opaque red glass, tubes and knots. From Casal's excavations in Arikamedu 15. Glass Making Tools used by Traditional Glass craftsmen | 221 |
| 11. | Glass Making tools used by Traditional Glass Craftsmen | 222 |

v1.c5.55

| 1. | The Diamond Fields of India | 245 |

v1.c5.56

| 1. | Tāpana, Nirvāpa | 273 |
| 2. | Dola-Yantra | 273 |
| 3. | Drāvana, Dhālana | 274 |
| 4. | Jāraṇa | 274 |
| 5. | Khalava-Yantra | 274 |
| 6. | Puṭa-Yantra | 275 |
| 7. | Balukā-Yantra | 276 |
| 8. | Bhānu-Pāka | 280 |
| 9. | Sthālī-Pāka | 280 |

v1.c5.57

| 1. | Dolā Yantra | 294 |
| 2. | Dhūpana Yantra | 295 |
| 3. | Items of Cosmetics and Perfumery | 296 |

v1.c5.58

| Fig | | Page |
| | **[4.4]** | |
| 1. | Some sharp instruments mentioned in Suśruta | 335 |
| 2. | Some blunt instruments described by Suśruta | 335 |
| 3. | *Maṇḍalāgra* | 336 |
| 4. | *Karapatra* (saw) | 336 |
| 5. | *Vṛddhipatra* (scalpel) | 336 |
| 6. | *Nakha Śastra* (Nail Parer) | 336 |
| 7. | *Mudrikā Śastra* (Finger Knife) | 337 |
| 8. | *Utpal Patra Śastra* | 337 |
| 9. | *Kuthrikā* (Lancet) | 337 |
| 10. | *Vṛhimukha Śastra* (Trocar) | 337 |
| 11. | *Lintarmukha* (Curved Bistury) | 337 |
| 12. | *Trikurcaka* (Brush) | 337 |
| 13. | *Kuśapatra* (Pagets Knife) | 337 |
| 14. | *Atimukha* | 338 |
| 15. | *Sararimukha* (Scissors) | 338 |
| 16. | Diagramatic Section of the anal canal showing the position of the anal fistulae | 338 |
| 17. | Complete Low Fistula (With high blind) | 338 |
| 18. | *Karasūtra* | 339 |
| 19. | The technique of *Raktamokhana* (Venesection) | 339 |
| 20. | The method of Spilintage of Fractured Bone by using bamboo | 340 |
| 21. | The technique of removal of skin flap for doing the Rhinoplasty | 341 |
| 22. | Suśruta’s method of Plastic Surgery : *Nemisandhanaka*, *Gamdakarna* | 342 |
| | **[5]** | |
| 1. | *Kerānga* cloth woven by Bonda women, District Korapat, Orissa | 359 |
| 2a. | Loom used in weaving *Kerānga* cloth | 360 |
| 2b. | Weaving process in *Kerānga* cloth | 360 |
| 2c. | Fibre from Calotropis gigantea, *Kerānga*. Photographs 1 & 2a-2d, Courtesy, Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneshwar | 361 |
| 3a. | Loom of Meghwal community. Continuous goat hair warp, no reed. | 363 |
| 3b. | Shed formation | 363 |
| 3c. | After completion of each pick the weave is beaten in by two *panja* beaters. Figs.3a, b, c were taken at a fair organized for Adivasis at Sanskar Kendra, Ahmedabad, February, 1992; The two weavers, Amba Ram and Sanook Kastura Ram, hail from Gam Megha Par, Post Rama, Jilla Jaisalmer | 364 |

v1.c5.59

| Fig | Page |
| 4. | Horizontal counter balance pit loom with shafts and treadles. This loom is used for weaving tribal loin cloths. Weaver, Sri Rama Bhai Wanker, Chota Udepur, Gujarat | 366 |
| 5. | Barrel dobby mechanism. The loom used for weaving Karvathi Kati dhoti. Photographed at Suraj Mela, 1987 | 367 |
| 6a. | Loin loom and loom parts | 368 |
| 6b. | Change of shed in loin loom | 369 |
| 6c. | Shrimati Lungham Chothe of Chandel, Manipur, demonstrating weaving on loin loom. Photographed at Craft Museum, New Delhi in October, 1990 | 370 |
| 7a. | Patola Loom and parts | 371 |
| 7b | (i), (ii). Patola Loom, cross section of shedding mechanism | 372 |
| 7c. | Patola loom and work area. Operated by family of Sri Chotulal Salvi, Patan, Gujarat. | 372 |
| 8. | Structure of tabby weave | 373 |
| 9a. | Sample of khes. Courtesy, Panipat Textiles and Handicrafts Panipat | 373 |
| 9b. | Samples of majnu. Courtesy, Panipat Textiles and Handicrafts, Panipat | 374 |
| 10. | Structure of two faced Pitambar | 374 |
| 11a. | Multi shaft and peddle loom used for weaving sari borders | 374 |
| 11b. | Shaft and peddle attachments | 375 |
| 11c. | Manipulation of peddles with the big toe of each foot. Figures 11a-c were photographed in August, 1981, at the loom operated by Sri Mani Lal Somnath Sakdi at his home/workplace, Serima Jeevan Pole, Ahmedabad | 375 |
| 12. | Newar shaft loom. From sample Book dated circa A.D. 1880 Courtesy, Kutch Museum, Bhuj | 376 |
| 13. | Tablet weaving apparatus | 376 |
| 14. | Tapes for tying manuscripts, possibly made in Varanasi, acquired in A.D. 1885 | 377 |
| 15a. | Structure of Jamdani fabric | 377 |
| 15b. | Lifting of warp ends for design area in Moirangphee fabric done through the Jamdani technique. Srimath Lungham Chothe, Chandel, Manipur | 378 |
| 16a. | Structure of slit tapestry as in pañja dari | 378 |
| 16b. | Structure of single weft interlock found, on occasion, in Kāni Paśminā | 379 |
| 16c. | Structure of double interlock found in Kāni paśminā and Paithani borders and Pallus. | 379 |
| 16d. | Structure of dovetailing. This is found in Panja dari weaves and border ornamentation of Kulu and Kinnaur weaves, Himachal Pradesh | 379 |

v1.c5.60

| Fig | Page |
| 17a. | Sample of double interlock on Paithani pallu. Reverse side | 380 |
| 17b. | Sample of double interlock in Kāni Paśminā. Reverse side | 380 |
| 18. | Panja Dari. Courtesy, Panipat textiles and Handicrafts, Panipat | 381 |
| 19. | Loom of Srimati Gyan Bhagati, Thapasari village, Kinnaur | 381 |
| 20. | Structure of three shuttle weaving | 382 |
| 21. | The Adai Loom | 382 |
| 21a. | Part detail of Harness for Adai for extra warp | 382 |
| 21b. | Cross border pattern healds (vadi) tie-up order | 383 |
| 22a. | Weaver manipulating Jhungu for border ornamentation | 383 |
| 22b. | Woman manipulating adai. | 384 |

v1.c5.61

| 1. | Vedic Technique of Fermentation | 440 |
| 2. | Four Digesting Devices | 443 |

v1.c5.62

| 1. | Plans of Mohenjodaro and Harappa showing township and citadel. (Wheeler, R.E.M., 1953, “Cambridge History of India, Supplementary Volume - the Indus Civilization, p.19) | 526 |
| 2. | Plan of Lothal. Rao, S.R., 1962, “Further Excavations at Lothal”, (Lalit Kala, No. 11) | 528 |
| 3. | Plan of Fortfications at Ujjain. (“Indian Archaeology - 1956-57; A Review”, p.21,9) | 530 |
| 4. | Photograph of defences of Kauśāmbī. (“Indian Archaeology - 1957-58; A Review”, pl. LX) | 532 |
| 5. | Photograph of wooden construction in the make up or the ramparts. (“Indian Archaeology - 1957-58, A Review”, pl.XLI A) | 533 |
| 6. | Aerial photograph of Śiśupālgarh. (Ancient India, No. 5, pl. XXVII) | 534 |
| 7. | Plan of Fortifications at Nāgārjunakoṇḍa. (“Indian Archaeology - 1957-58 ; A Review”, p. 7) | 535 |
| 8. | Representations of fortifications in Sculpture. Mate, M.S., 1970A | 536 |

v1.c5.63

| 1. | Bādāmi. Mālegitti Śivalaya, Elevation. (Early Cālukya style, A.D. 655-860) | 543 |
| 2. | Bādāmi, Mālegitti Śivālaya, Section | 543 |
| 3. | Koḍumbālur. Mūvar Kovil, Section & Elevation. (Dravidian style, A.D.880-900) | 544 |

v1.c5.64

| Fig | Page |
| 4. | Khajurāho. Viśvanātha temple (A.D. 1002) | 544 |
| 5. | Khajurāho. Viśvanātha temple, Section.(Candela style, A.D. 1001) | 545 |
| 6. | Khajurāho. Viśvanātha temple, Plan | 545 |
| 7. | Khajurāho. Viśvanātha temple, *maṇḍovara* | 546 |
| 8. | Khajurāho. Citragupta temple, *maṇḍapa* ceiling (c. A.D. 1025) | 547 |
| 9. | Khajurāho. Kaṇḍariya Mahādeva temple | 547 |
| 10. | Khajurāho. Vāmana temple, *Samvaraṇa* roof on *maṇḍapa*, (c A.D. 1060) | 548 |
| 11. | Khajurāho, Vāmana temple, *Samvaraṇa* roof on *maṇḍapa*, plan (c A.D. 1060) | 549 |
| 12. | *Pītha* (Socle) of Solanki temple. (Early 11th century, Courtesy: M.A. Dhaky) | 550 |
| 13. | *Maṇḍovara* of Solanki temple. (Early 11th century, Courtesy: M.A. Dhaky) | 551 |
| 14A. | Socle, *Kakṣāsana* & pillar of Nīlakaṇṭheśvara temple, Virtā. (Solanki style 11th century) | 552 |
| 14B | Pillar of Rāni Vav, Patan. (Solanki style 11th century) | 552 |
| 15. | *Maṇḍapa* ceiling of Nīlakaṇṭha Mahādeva temple, Sunak. (Solanki style, 11th century) | 553 |

v1.c5.65

| 1. | *Tumbu* (sluice) system | 569 |
| 2. | *Kumili* (sluice-pit) system (reproduced from *Studies in History*, Vol.2, No.2, 1986) | 569 |
| 3. | Outlet channel of a reservoir, Vānagiri, Kāveripumpattinam (photo courtesy : ASI Southern circle) | 573 |
| 4. | *Mārpiḍugu-perunkiṇaru* (big well), (photo courtesy: Dept. of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu) | 579 |
| 5. | Water-lifting by the Picotaḥ (photo courtesy: M/s G.K. Vale & Co., Madras) | 582 |
| 6. | Panel depicting warriors and the wheel of pots (*jala- yantra- cakra*) from Mandor (11th century A.D.) (photo courtesy: ASI, New Delhi) | 587 |

v1.c5.66

| 1. | A tenth century road sign mentioning it as the Rajkesari Peruvali (High road, Tamilnadu) | 603 |
| 2. | A thirteenth century road sign mentioning it as Vikrama, Pandyan Street, 6th Ward, Tamil Nadu | 604 |

v1.c5.67

| 1. | Furniture - Ikṣvāku period (3rd to 4th century A.D.) | 632 |
| 2. | Furniture - Nolamba period | 633 |
| 3. | Furniture - Hoysālā period | 634 |

v1.c5.68

--- | ---
4. | Furniture - Hoysāla period | 635
5. | Furniture - Hoysāla period | 636

v1.c5.69

1. | Pre-historic leathercraft | 647
2. | Ancient leathercraft for defence use | 652
3. | Ancient leathercraft for footwear | 654
4. | Ancient leathercraft for boat and container | 658
5. | Ancient leathercraft using parchment | 660

v1.c5.70

(b) Tables

v1.c5.71

1. | Radio-carbon dates in years b.p. (before present) for remains found associated with ancient Mining and Smelting of Lead-Zinc- Silver. | 63

v1.c5.72

1. | Indian Chronology of Cultural History and Development of Metals Technology | 81
2. | Various tools and implements appearing at the three stages of iron technology growth | 100
3. | Technical details of ancient iron furnaces | 118
4. | Technical analysis of design of ancient and modern furnace | 120
5. | Comparison of operating parameters of Jiragora and Bishunpur iron making furnaces | 123
6. | Heat balance of ironmaking furnace at Jiragora (M K Ghosh) | 128
7. | Material balance for ironmaking from Jiragora (M. K. Ghosh) | 129
8. | Chemical composition of iron produced by ancient Indian furnaces | 130
9. | Chemical Analysis of some ‘Wootz Steel’ objects | 135
10. | Mineralogical analysis of the ceramic material of the Zinc Retort Wall | 143
11. | Metallic Content of Zawar Charge Residue and Retort Wall | 143

v1.c5.73

1. | Colouring Agents used | 213
2. | Percentage composition of some ceramic materials and glasses from Indian Archaeological Sites | 216

v1.c5.74

1. | Some C¹⁴ Dates related to Metallic Ore Mines in ancient | 227
2. | Materials in Mehargarh Phases | 229
3. | Stratigraphical Table of Beads from Sirkap, Taxila | 235
4. | Gem categories of importance in the ancient world | 238

v1.c5.75

| Fig. | | Page |
| 5. | Typical compositions of *reh*, *sāji māṭṭi* and bittern | 246 |
| 6. | Phases identified in Zawar Retort Residue (content), Wall and (Lead) Slag by X-Ray and Electron Diffraction Studies | 251 |
| | **[6.2]** | |
| 1. | Fermenting substances | 445 |
| 2. | Acetic fermentation (*Sandhanamla*) | 445 |
| | **[6.3]** | |
| 1. | Utensils of the Vedic Sacrifice | 454 |
| 2. | Liquors listed in approximately historical order | 463 |
| | **[6.4]** | |
| 1. | Disease conditions for folk treatment | 478 |
| 2. | Plants used for same disease conditions in different ethnic groups in India | 479 |
| 3. | Ancient Veterinary Literature and related information | 481 |
| 4. | Gaits of horses | 484 |
| 5. | Classification of elephants | 485 |
| 6. | Correspondence of modern equivalent to the referred selection criteria for bulls | 486 |
| 7. | Classification of horses according to measurements | 486 |
| 8. | Prognosis of horses from eye symptoms | 487 |
| 9. | Aspects dealt with in unavailable parts of *Aśvavaidyakam* | 487 |
| | **[7.1]** | |
| 1. | Percentage composition of Gypsum and Lime Plasters and Mortars from Harappa and Mohenjodaro | 515 |
| 2. | Percentage composition of Lime Plasters and Mortars from Kausambi, Dt. Allahabad | 516 |
| 3. | Ratio of sand and slaked lime in Plasters and Mortars from Kausambi, Dt. Allahabad | 516 |
| 4. | Percentage composition of Fine Lime Plaster and Rough Lime Plaster samples from Karwan (Dt. Vadodara, Gujarat) | 517 |
| 5. | Percentage composition of Plaster at Bhitari (Dt. Gazipur. U.P.) | 517 |
| 6. | Percentage composition of Plaster samples from Nalanda | 517 |
| 7. | Percentage of Plaster sample from Liṅgarāj temple at Bhubaneshwar (Orissa, 10th century A.D.) | 518 |
| 8. | Percentage composition of Cola and Nayak Plasters | 518 |

v1.c5.76

the Roman world, and the most important events of the reign of Antoninus Pius, are related by his biographer, and the reader will not be sorry to find them here in a more concise form. The reign of Antoninus Pius is marked by the rare advantage of furnishing very few materials for history; which is only another mode of saying that its happiness was complete. During the twenty-three years of his administration, the Roman empire was governed by the same invariable maxims of justice and peace. The natives of a vast extent of country were protected by the same laws, and enjoyed the same privileges. The frontiers were defended by the same legions, and the same spirit of moderation and equity prevailed in the councils of the emperor. The death of Antoninus was lamented as a public calamity; and the memory of his virtues was preserved by the gratitude of his subjects, and the imitation of his successor.

v1.c5.77

The reign of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, which followed, was a period of great activity and of great events. The empire was attacked on all sides by the barbarians, and the emperor was obliged to spend the greater part of his life in the camp. He was a man of a mild and philosophical temper, and he would have preferred the quiet of the study to the tumult of the field. But he was a prince of a high sense of duty, and he did not shrink from the task which was imposed upon him. He defended the frontiers with vigour, and he defeated the enemies of Rome in many a hard-fought battle. His death was a loss to the empire, and it was felt by all classes of his subjects. He was the last of the good emperors, and with him the golden age of the Roman empire may be said to have terminated.

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The character of the Roman government, under the Antonines, was that of a mild and paternal despotism. The emperor was the source of all power, and his will was the law of the land. But he was restrained by the influence of the senate, and by the force of public opinion. The senate was still a body of great dignity and importance, and its members were the principal officers of the state. The emperor was careful to consult them on all matters of importance, and he was always ready to listen to their advice. The public opinion was also a powerful check upon the actions of the emperor. The people of Rome were still a proud and independent race, and they were not afraid to express their dissatisfaction with the measures of the government. The emperor was aware of this, and he was always careful to avoid any act that would be likely to give offence to the people.

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The administration of justice was one of the most important duties of the emperor. He was the supreme judge of the empire, and he was always ready to hear the complaints of his subjects. He was assisted by a council of jurists, who were the most learned men of the age. The laws were administered with impartiality, and the rights of the citizens were protected. The taxes were moderate, and they were collected with fairness. The public works were carried on with vigour, and the cities of the empire were adorned with magnificent buildings. The trade and commerce of the empire were encouraged, and the people were prosperous and happy. The Roman empire, under the Antonines, was a model of good government, and it was the envy of the world.