Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c19: 11. Iron, PGW and Urbanisation at Atrañjikhera
Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c19
- Language
- English
Contents
- v1.c19.s1 History of Excavation — 1 part
- v1.c19.s2 Chronology — 4 parts
- v1.c19.s3 OCP Culture — 3 parts
- v1.c19.s4 Black and Red Ware Culture — 4 parts
- v1.c19.s5 PGW Culture — 7 parts
- v1.c19.s6 NBP Culture — 9 parts
11. Iron, PGW and Urbanisation at Atrañjikhera
v1.c19.1
The ancient site of Atrañjikhera (27º 42' North Latitude and 78º 44' East Longitude) is located in District and Tehsil Etāh in Uttar Pradesh. The mound of Atrañjikhera lies on the Western (right) bank of the Kali Nadi, a tributary of the Ganga. The villages of Achalpur, Kalyanpur and Burhanabad lie respectively to the south, west and north of the mound. This mound is one of the four biggest in U.P., the other three being Sankisa, Ahicchatra and Kauśāmbī.
History of Excavation
v1.c19.s1.1
The Excavation at Hastināpur determined the chronological position of two ancient ceramics, i.e., ochre-coloured pottery (OCP) and painted grey ware (PGW) as being stratigraphically earlier than the northern black polished (NBP) ware. Unfortunately, however, the settlement at Hastināpur was found abandoned after each period, leaving a considerable hiatus in between. Therefore, the cultural evolution remained blurred. Moreover the excavation at Hastināpur raised several questions, which could be answered only by further digging at a few suitable sites in the Doab or in the surrounding area. Thus, in the course of exploration, Atrañjikhera attracted the attention. Since the mound was quite extensive, it was decided to conduct the excavation in two phases. The results of the first excavation are presented. (Gaur, 1983)
Chronology
v1.c19.s2.1
Atrañjikhera has revealed a continuity of occupation from the proto-historic times, represented by the OCP, to the NBPW period (in fact up to the Mughal period). Of interest to us in the present context, however, are the following periods:
v1.c19.s2.2
Period I — Ochre Colour Pottery (OCP) Period II — Black- and red-ware (B & RW) Period III — Painted grey ware (PGW) Period IV — Northern Black Polished ware (NBPW)
v1.c19.s2.3
The Black and red ware period intervening between the OCP and PGW period, has come to light for the first time through the excavation at Atrañjikhera. These four periods may be dated as follows:
v1.c19.s2.4
Period I — first half of second millenniun BC Period II — 1450-1200 BC Period III — 1200-600 BC Period IV — 600-50 BC
OCP Culture
v1.c19.s3.1
The earliest cultural deposit lying immediately above the natural soil is associated with the Ochre Colour Pottery. There was no sign of regular habitation, such as marks of burnt organic material, floor levels etc. An analysis of the soil containing the OCP indicates that the area had been flooded by the river and remained water-logged for a considerable period. This period is often met with sandstone and quartzite pieces (some being fragments of querns and pestles), a terracotta bead (?), a sling ball (?), a potter's dabber and two pottery discs. The stone pieces that were recovered in course of excavation are indeterminate in shape. The querns appear to have been rather shallow with sagger base. Among the terracotta objects only five such objects have been recovered from the deposit of Period I. The objects are a sling ball, a perforated pottery disc, another pottery disc, and an indeterminate object probably a bead or pendant.
v1.c19.s3.2
That OCP was associated with the copper hoards seems to be established by the excavations at Saipai. (Lal, 1971, & 1972) A few OCP shards from Atrañjikhera have been dated by the thermoluminescent technique at Oxford and the mean age is around 1690 BC. (Gaur, 1983: 21)
v1.c19.s3.3
The Black and Red Ware at Atrañjikhera coming after OCP seems to be related to similar potteries (with additional painting) in the Ahar and Gilund complexes. It appears that around 1400-1300 BC, a branch of the B&RW people left Ahar region, crossed Chambal and settled at Atrañjikhera and then Noh. (Gaur, 1983: 20)
Black and Red Ware Culture
v1.c19.s4.1
The excavation brought to light a new cultural phase hitherto unknown in the Upper-Gaṅgā-Valley. This phase intermediate between OCP and PGW, also detected at Noh and Jodhpura is characterised mainly by the black and red ware, cores and waste flakes of semi-precious stones and copper objects. The other cultural equipments of the period included beads of various material and pottery discs.
v1.c19.s4.2
As many as 88 antiquities including a few indeterminate objects were recovered from the strata of this period. They include three carnelian and a shell bead: four objects of copper, one possibly a ring and three beads: spikes of a broken bone-comb; fragment of pestles; a small burnished stone; pieces of indeterminate nature; and cores and flakes of semi-precious stones such as quartzite, chalcedony, agate and carnelian.
v1.c19.s4.3
According to the geologists, the pieces of chalcedony, quartz; carnelian and agate found at Atrañjikhera could have been brought either from Ranathambhor or Karwi-Banda regions. Since the nearest source of copper is also not far from the Ranathambhor region, it seems likely that both copper and these stones were brought from the neighbourhood of Ranathambhor.
v1.c19.s4.4
The B&RW culture people developed the tradition of white-painted potteries and transmitted the same to the PGW culture.
PGW Culture
v1.c19.s5.1
Of the protohistoric deposits at Atrañjikhera the richest is that of the Painted Grey Ware Culture. The total area under occupation during this period was more than that during the preceding two periods.
v1.c19.s5.2
In comparison to the previous two periods, a larger number of things have been unearthed from this stratum.
Terracotta
v1.c19.s5.t1.1
Terracotta objects were apparently not popular during this period. Not a single terracotta human figure was found. Even animal figures are rare during this period at Atrañjikhera. They could possibly be connected with some ritual, and perhaps were not merely children toys. As for toys, terracotta balls were probably intended for children, while the game-pieces of various shapes used for a primitive class. Though wheels have been found, toy-carts are missing. This suggests that the wheels are probably spindle-whorls. Similarly other terracotta objects were made to meet the needs of life. These objects include stoppers of containers, reels, discs, net-sinkers, crucibles and clay-stands.
v1.c19.s5.t1.2
In all, twenty-six terracotta beads have been recovered from the different phases of Period III. Sixteeen of them are broken or damaged. Generally, the beads are well-baked and eighteen of them are slipped. On the basis of their shapes, the beads may be divided broadly into eleven types. Apart from this, twelve beads of semi-precious stones have been recovered from the different levels of Period III. Out of these, six beads are broken or damaged. On the whole, the beads show a high order of workmanship and skill. Agate is represented by eight beads of different shapes including a small spherical etched bead. While carnelian is the material for another two beads, quartz is represented by a standard barrel triangular bead and marble by a short circular bead. Besides these finished beads, waste cores and raw material have also been found.
Stone Objects
v1.c19.s5.t2.1
In all, eleven stone objects and twenty-two ordinary stone pieces have been unearthed from the different levels of Period III. The objects include six pestles, two white stones, one small ball and two indeterminate pieces, one of which is of soapstone. All the objects, except the last, are of sandstone. The pestles of this period can be grouped into several types.
Iron Objects
v1.c19.s5.t3.1
The most significant discovery of the period is that of iron tools and implements. These have been found in practically all the layers suggesting that the use of iron was common throughout the PGW period. However, a majority of them came from the Upper phase. In all, one hundred and thirty-five iron objects were recovered including seven pieces of iron slags and fourteen indeterminate objects. The identifiable finds comprised of fourteen kinds of objects viz, arrowhead, spearhead, shaft, pair of tongs, clamp, chisel, bar (rod), borer, needle, hook, nail, axe, knife, and bangle. One may broadly divide them into three groups: (i) Weapons, (ii) Craft tools and implements, (iii) Household objects and ornaments.
v1.c19.s5.t3.2
The presence of iron objects in such profusion (vide Table 11.1) and the discovery of furnace, slags (Table 11.2) and certain specific tools used by blacksmiths suggest that not only were iron goods manufactured at the site, but that the smelting of iron ore was also carried out here. It has been suggested that the main source of iron for PGW people of Atrañjikhera was most probably the region extending from south of Agra, to Gwalior containing rocks in which iron content is 'high'. The extensive deposits of banded haematite-quartzite found in these rocks were considered important and have been worked out on large scale by the indigenous smelters. Chemical analysis of iron shales collected from Agra-Gwalior range shows that the material contains 21.7 per cent iron, 41.9 per cent SiO₂, 14 per cent Al₂O₃, 6.3 per cent CaO, 2.3 per cent MgO. 1.4 per cent Na₂O and 6.8 per cent K₂O. O.P. Agrawal claims that this shell might have been used for iron-making at Atrañjikhera in view of the fact that SiO₂, Al₂O₃, CaO and MgO are present in the above material as well as in the finished objects and slags. (Gaur, 1983, 487-500)
v1.c19.s5.t3.3
However, the proportions of SiO₂, Al₂O₃, CaO and MgO are lower in four of the five slags (exception being slag No. 3 vide Table 11.2) compared to the raw material, and iron percentage much higher. Therefore, the raw material used must have been lot purer than the iron shale (as analysed above) to produce slag containing as high as 63-66 per cent Fe₂O₃. Alternatively it may be suggested that only No. 3 is acceptable as a representative slag.
v1.c19.s5.t3.4
Table 11.1
v1.c19.s5.t3.5
**Analysis of Iron Objects (Chemical and Spectrographic)** **from Atrañjikhera**
v1.c19.s5.t3.6
| | Samples | | | |
| | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
| Fe₂O₃ | 89.36 | — | — | — |
| SiO₂ | 0.53 | 1.80 | 1.51 | 1.32 |
| Al₂O₃ | 1.33 | .82 | .96 | 1.25 |
| CaO | 0.60 | 1.31 | .82 | .73 |
| MgO | 0.12 | 0.19 | .71 | .62 |
| Cu | — | — | — | — |
| Ni | — | — | — | — |
| TiO₂ | Tr. | Tr. | — | Tr. |
| P₂O₅ | 0.33 | 0.21 | 0.18 | 0.21 |
| S | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.12 |
| C | 0.33 | 0.18 | 0.26 | 0.31 |
| MnO₂ | Tr. | Tr. | Tr. | Tr. |
| Co | — | — | — | — |
| Zn | — | — | — | — |
| As | — | — | — | — |
v1.c19.s5.t3.7
Percentage Composition of Slags from Atrañjikhera
v1.c19.s5.t3.8
| | Samples | | | | |
| | Slag No. 1 | Slag No. 2 | Slag No. 3 | Slag No. 4 | Slag No.5 |
| Fe₂O₃ | 63.76 | 65.36 | 30.4 | 66.6 | 56.0 |
| SiO₂ | 29.39 | 25.34 | 57.3 | 25.6 | 30.5 |
| CaO | 0.86 | 2.41 | 8.4 | 1.3 | 2.2 |
| MgO | 0.64 | 0.97 | 0.6 | 0.2 | — |
| MnO₂ | 1.42 | Trace | Trace | — | — |
| Al₂O₃ | 3.14 | 4.76 | 3.1 | 5.0 | 4.4 |
| P₂O₅ | 0.77 | 0.69 | — | — | — |
| Total | 99.98 | 99.53 | 99.8 | 98.7 | 93.1 |
v1.c19.s5.t3.9
It seems likely that the ore was put at first along with fuel in an open circular or oval-shaped pit-like furnace, and then reduced at high temperature raised with the help of a leather bellow. The metal thus formed might have been then forged repeatedly and hammered out to be in proper shape for preparing the desired objects.
v1.c19.s5.t3.10
This iron industry must have maintained a number of black-smiths. Another important class of skilled workers would have been that of carpenters, since several items like axe, nails, clamps, chisels, and borers apparently belong to their tool-kit. The presence of arrowheads and spearheads were probably used in both war and hunting. Though the presence of cultivated wheat, rice, barley and pulses has been shown during this period, it is surprising that not a single iron implement irrevocably associated with agriculture has been found so far. The association of iron with the painted gray ware has how been attested from other sites. Atrañjikhera has yielded what is so far the earliest reported find of iron, placed stratigraphically in twelfth century BC. (Gaur 1983, 219-20)
v1.c19.s5.t3.11
There is no doubt that iron implements were being made in India since very early times, but in comparison to copper and its alloy-bronze, the use of iron started rather late. This may be so on account of the problems presented in the working of iron. It melts at a high temperature of 1537°C. The Indus Valley Culture sites have not yielded iron objects.
v1.c19.s5.t3.12
Some of the iron objects as well as slags, excavated at Atrañjikhera were examined to gain some knowledge about the metallurgy of iron in that remote period. The aims of the metallurgical analysis were to know the nature of iron used; whether it is meteoric, wrought iron, cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel; details of metallurgical operations, nature of the ore and if possible, its location, the use of flux, metallurgical refinement, whether any slag was present in the metal or it was completely removed, working temperatures, etc.
v1.c19.s5.t3.13
Samples were taken from four iron objects: No. 1 from the upper phases and nos. 2-4 from the middle phase of the PGW stratum. All samples had some metallic core to allow taking good representative samples. The chemical analysis of these iron objects show that silica, lime, alumina, magnesia and manganese are always present in the metal, although as impurities. Silica is in the range of .53 to 1.8 per cent, lime ranges from 0.6 to 1.31 per cent, and magnesia is .12 to .7 per cent. The phosphorous oxides are ranging from .18 to .33 per cent. Sulphur is also present. Titanium is present in traces. The percentage of carbon is low. Nickel, cobalt, zinc, arsenic are all absent. (*vide* Table 11.1)
v1.c19.s5.t3.14
It is clear from the above account that the iron used for these objects was not of meteoric origin. Meteoric iron is always associated with nickel and very often cobalt. Even otherwise, it is known that the working of meteoric iron is rather difficult. Furthermore, meteoric iron is found rarely, and would never be available in sufficient quantities for general use.
v1.c19.s5.t3.15
Metallurgical examination of the four samples gave some very interesting results. Sample No. 1 was clearly a sample of wrought iron showing no pearlite formation but containing multiple slag inclusions throughout the body. The other samples showed apart from slag inclusions, lamellar and spherodized pearlite in zones near the surface and ferrite in other areas. From this examination it appears that these objects were first made of wrought iron and later on were carburized by some technique whereby the surface or the zone nearest to the surface turned into carbide. This happens when the iron object is kept on charcoal bed for a long time at high temperature. For sample 1, either it did not pass through this process or else the surface has by now completely corroded. (Gaur 1983: 487-89; 495-96)
Copper Objects
v1.c19.s5.t4.1
In all, twenty-two copper objects have been recovered from the different levels of Period III. It appears that the introduction of iron, which was the most suitable metal for arms and implements, drastically reduced the use of copper. Its use was now more specialised, it serving as the material chiefly for ornaments, toilet-goods, decorative objects, kitchen-utensils, and the like. More than half the items recovered were found in badly damaged conditions. However, these offered good evidence of the copper-smith’s craft. The fragment of a copper dish is particularly worth mentioning. The presence of fish-hooks show that the fish, bivalve, etc. formed part of the diet. Other copper items include rings, antimony rods, bangles, clamps, antimony rod-cum-nail parers, a pin and a celt. (Gaur, 1983: 230-32)
v1.c19.s5.t4.2
Analysis of four copper objects are presented in Table 11.3.
v1.c19.s5.t4.3
The analysis of Sample No. 2 shows that the copper was almost without any deliberate alloying. The presence of iron, tin, lead and aluminium is evidently on account of impurities coming from the ore. No arsenic or antimony could be detected. On the other hand, Sample No. 1 showed the inclusions of tin to the extent of 11.68 per cent and lead and zinc 9.00 per cent and 6.28 per cent respectively.
v1.c19.s5.t4.4
Table 11.3
v1.c19.s5.t4.5
Chemical Analysis of Copper Objects from Atrañjikhera
v1.c19.s5.t4.6
| | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
| Cu | 70.99 | 97.33 | 52.42 | 71.6 |
| Sn | 11.68 | 0.49 | 20.72 | 12.9 |
| Pb | 9.00 | 0.57 | 9.77 | Tr. |
| Zn | 6.28 | — | 16.20 | Tr. |
| Fe₂O₃ | 1.93 | 1.34 | 1.23 | 9.7 |
| Al₂O₃ | 0.18 | 0.15 | 0.01 | — |
| MnO₂ | — | — | — | — |
| Ni | — | — | — | — |
| Co | — | — | — | — |
| As | — | — | — | — |
| Sb | — | — | — | — |
| CaO | — | — | — | — |
| MgO | Tr. | — | — | — |
| S | 0.12 | — | 0.08 | 0.3 |
| Total | 100.18 | 99.88 | 100.43 | 94.5 |
v1.c19.s5.t4.7
The result of the analysis of Sample No. 3 was very curious inasmuch as it contained a very high amount of tin (20.72 %) and also zinc which is 16.20 per cent. There is no arsenic or antimony detected in this sample. These figures indicate heavy alloying with tin and use of zinc ore.
v1.c19.s5.t4.8
It is found that sulphur is present in Sample Nos. 1, 3 and 4 although not in appreciable quantities. The probability is that a sulphide ore was used in smelting copper. Since iron is present in all the four samples, (in three of them ranging between 1.23 per cent and 1.93 per cent and in the fourth to the extent of 9.7 per cent), the sources could be the iron-bearing chalcopyrites. Normally iron is removed at the time of smelting. However, if the process of melting is not thorough, the product would contain a higher percentage of iron as in the case of Sample No. 4. (Gaur 1983, 483-90) The copper samples might have come from Ahar.
Glass Pieces
v1.c19.s5.t5.1
A small piece of glass was examined and analysed. It was dark green in colour. It is obvious that it formed part of a bottle or some other receptacle. The results of chemical analysis give 56.96 per cent SiO₂, 4.46 per cent Fe₂O₃, 3.62 per cent Al₂O₃, 1.09 per cent Cr₂O₃, 1.06 per cent PbO, 0.89 per cent SnO₂, 7.00 per cent CaO, 3.75 per cent MgO, 17.55 per cent Na₂O and 4.09 per cent K₂O.
v1.c19.s5.t5.2
The amount of alkalies in the glass piece is rather high. It is a soda-lime soft glass. The colour is due to the presence of iron and chromium. (Gaur: 1983, 490) This is one of the earliest evidences of glass being made in ancient India.
v1.c19.s5.t5.3
Hegde (1987) has suggested that glass in India was an innovation of the PGW period, and *sajjī maṭṭi*, also called *reh*, *khari*, was used for making the early variety of soft glass. *Sajjī maṭṭi* is an alkaline, natural efflorescence, profusely found in the Ganga Valley, chiefly in mid-eastern and eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. During the summer months, it comes out as a superficial incrustation on the alluvial soil as a 2-3 cm thick layer of glistening, white, crystalline salt, shining brightly in sunlight. It assays 20-40 per cent soda, variable proportions of Na₂CO₃ and Na₂SO₄, 5-10 per cent lime and 50-70 per cent silica; its use with some raw material containing Fe and Cr in making the dark green soft glass, as mentioned in the previous paragraph, can be easily surmised. *Sajjī maṭṭi* was also used in providing the liquid glaze on the later day NBP wares.
v1.c19.s5.t5.4
Hegde (1987) examined thin sections of PGW and found ‘insignificantly small number’ of larger and heavier particles of feldspar, quartz or limestone, thus proving the thoroughness of labour that the ancient potters had put in to prepare well-elutriated fine clay before making PGW. Red ochre containing Fe₂O₃ must have been used as the painting medium to decorate PGW before baking in a reducing atmosphere (in a *gajapuṭa* type of sealed furnace in which carbonaceous matter burned in an insufficient supply of oxygen producing carbon monoxide) since the black paint on the PGW has been proven to be Fe₃O₄ or magnetite. It is noteworthy that in this PGW era, one further step of reduction of iron oxide led to the first ever production of iron metal in India.
v1.c19.s5.t5.5
Fe₂O₃ → Fe₃O₄ → Fe
v1.c19.s5.t5.6
Although not much gold and silver have been found from any PGW site, which shows that the Harappan type of affluence re-emerged only much later in the NBPW era, Atrañjikhera excavation has yielded an interesting soapstone fragment of a mould which could have been used to prepare gold jewellery.
NBP Culture
v1.c19.s6.1
The major part of the mound came under occupation during Period IV, represented by the well-known deluxe industry of the Northern Black Polished Ware. On the basis of the evolution of the pottery-types, terracotta figurines, iron tools and other cultural equipment, the five metre thick deposit of the NBPW period may be divided into four phases viz. A, B, C and D.
NBPW Pottery Constituents
v1.c19.s6.t1.1
The NBP sherds are highly glossy, surface ranging from grey or brown to black in different shades. the paste is well levigated as discussed under PGW. Hegde (1987) has proved that red ochre was used to paint PGW, and baking around 600-700°C in a reducing atmosphere produced the black marks of magnetite. Red ochre was ground with clay to produce the burnished black slip on the Black Slipped Ware (BSW). In the NBPW stage, red ochre must have been ground with clay and sajji maṭṭi, the vitrefying substance, which produced the shining glaze during baking. The ware was baked twice: first at 600-700°C, then the paint was applied and the second baking was done at a higher temperature may be 800-1000°C in reducing atmosphere. The slip glaze shows much higher proportion of Na₂O and CaO compared to the composition of the core of NBPW (vide Table 11.4). High percentage of sodium in the glaze imparts to it a higher coefficient of thermal expansion than that of the cores, resulting in its cracking and peeling in course of time.
v1.c19.s6.t1.2
The widespread use of sajji maṭṭi was started in the PGW era and it continued in the NBPW period starting around 600 BC. Its use in making soft glass was followed by its use in providing shining glaze to the deluxe ware.
Terracotta
v1.c19.s6.t2.1
Among the antiquities of this period, terracotta objects surpass all the other items in number. These include a variety of objects such as toys, decorative material, curiosities, ritualistic items and the like. Clay has always been the most easily available plastic material. Therefore, this material served as the medium for the expression of artistic talents as well as models for artefacts made of other materials. Terracotta figurines and objects reflected the cultural pattern of the NBPW era such as terracotta plaque depicting *gajalakṣmī* in an apsidal temple etc.
v1.c19.s6.t2.2
Furthermore, one hundred and fifty terracotta beads have been reported from different levels of Period IV. Sixty beads were found broken or damaged. A majority of the beads are nicely shaped while some are crudely modelled. Most of them were well-baked, but some were sundried. Out of these, seventy-five beads had been treated with slip.
Semi-Precious Stone Beads
v1.c19.s6.t3.1
In all sixty beads of semi-precious stones have been recovered from different phases of Period IV.
v1.c19.s6.t3.2
The break-down of the beads according to the materials is
v1.c19.s6.t3.3
| Agate | - | 25 |
| Carnelian | - | 15 |
| Quartz | - | 8 |
| Jasper | - | 10 |
| Marble | - | 1 |
| Soapstone | - | 1 |
v1.c19.s6.t3.4
A few beads of carnelian and agate are etched. The two common patterns are: (a) pentagonal design with dots all over the body, and (b) elongated loops at alternate intervals within zonal bands at the margin. Besides these, thirty-three new types, beads having flat square-biconical sides with diagonal perforation, faceted decagonal with perforation near the tapering end, and long corrugated barrel elliptical, need special mention.
v1.c19.s6.t3.5
Stone Objects
v1.c19.s6.t3.6
Thirty-two stone objects and fifty-one broken pieces of sandstone have been recovered from the different levels of Period IV. The objects include animal figures, pestles, grinders, querns, disc, bead, bells and miscellaneous objects.
v1.c19.s6.t3.7
Percentage Composition of Slip Glaze and Core of NBPW
v1.c19.s6.t3.8
| Site | Specimen | SiO₂ | Al₂O₃ | Fe₂O₃ | Na₂O | CaO | Undeter-mined |
| Mathura | Slip glaze | 61.51 | 7.82 | 10.26 | 13.39 | 3.42 | 3.60 |
| Hastinapura | Slip glaze | 60.53 | 8.21 | 11.39 | 12.81 | 3.82 | 3.24 |
| Kausambi | Slip glaze | 64.26 | 7.24 | 8.38 | 11.73 | 2.64 | 5.75 |
| Mathura | Core | 64.78 | 27.62 | 1.21 | 0.39 | 0.52 | 5.48 |
| Hastinapura | Core | 64.89 | 26.92 | 1.48 | 0.72 | 0.64 | 5.35 |
| Kausambi | Core | 70.16 | 22.21 | 0.76 | 0.64 | 0.32 | 5.91 |
v1.c19.s6.t3.9
* As the slip glaze is very thin and much harder than the core of the pottery, the slip glaze sample analyzed were slightly contaminated with portions scraped from the core of the pottery.
v1.c19.s6.t3.10
Seventeen glass and five shell objects including a few indeterminate pieces were recovered from the various levels of Period IV. These include seven glass beads, three glass bangles, three glass weights and four indeterminate glass figures. Among the shell objects only three shell bangles and two indeterminate fragments of shells were found.
Iron Objects
v1.c19.s6.t4.1
Three hundred and thirty-eight iron objects including 37 indeterminate pieces were recovered from the various strata of Period IV. The identifiable objects comprise of 30 items including 12 slag pieces and 12 broken pieces of bars. While almost all the items found in Period III continue, 16 new items are noticed during this period. Agricultural tools appear for the first time during Period IV. Their use must have increased the agricultural output to provide surplus, an essential factor for urbanisation. The building activity also increased considerably due to the use of many new tools, including plumb-bob for fixing vertical alignment of the walls. The tools of blacksmiths and carpenters are found in large numbers, indicating the growing importance of their crafts. The blacksmiths’ furnaces were noticed more frequently during Period IV than in the habitational layers of Period III. Obviously, the wider use of iron in Period IV had a considerable effect on economic life of the town.
v1.c19.s6.t4.2
In this phase the main iron objects were arrowhead, spearhead, shaft, sickle, spud, ploughshare, hoe, digger, tongs, clamp, ring-fastener, socketed-clamp, staple, bolt, plumb-bob, nail, bar, hook, borer, chopping-knife, chopper pipe, scraper, chisel, axe, knife, lid, disc, bangle, lump (slag) and a few indeterminate objects. (Gaur, 1983: 422-25)
Copper Objects
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Eighty-eight copper objects were recovered from the different levels of Period IV. Thirteen belong to Phase A, twenty-one to Phase B, twenty-five to Phase C and twenty-nine to Phase D. During this period, copper was used for a wide range of objects. More than half of the objects were found damaged. The most exquisite piece of art is a pair of frogs, obviously made in the same mould. The fragment of basin suggests that copper posts and pans were used perhaps by the privileged class. As many as three clamps, all of similar shape were recovered from the upper phase. This might have been used for joining lighter objects with the help of small nails as their thin sections, as tiny holes indicate. Among other items were antimony-rods, nail-parer, rods, ferrule, sockets, tube, ornaments, etc. Apart from this, few copper coins were also found from this stratum. Punch-marked and uninscribed coins contained typical Aryan symbols.
Other Metal Objects
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Only four small gold pieces have been found during the course of the excavation and all came from Phase D. These include two tiny pieces of indeterminate use, weighing hardly 1.25 gms and two circular foils.
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A small rounded lump or ball of lead has been recovered from Phase C. Lead was used in coinage during this period. The lead coin of Sujestha (around 140 BC) of the Śuṅga dynasty shows Lakṣmī on lotus flower and elephant holding umbrella over.
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To some extent silver was also used during this period; a few silver coins were found from this period.
Fragment of a Crucible
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The crucible piece was examined under a microscope and the contained matter was chemically analysed. On one side of the piece a glassy slag like material was sticking. The material used for the crucible is refractory in nature made mostly from sand and clay. It could withstand high temperatures. It is difficult to say for what purpose this was used.
Powdery Materials
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Several powdery materials were found carefully stored. Chemical analysis suggested that these different materials could be (a) mixture of lime, brick powder and clay possibly used as mortar and plastering the walls, (b) mixture of lime and sand, (c) mixture of clay and sand used either for plastering or for making pottery, (d) fine-grained white powdery material assaying 40.6 per cent CaO and 9.3 per cent MgO possibly a mixture of lime (now converted to CaCO₃) and talc used as pigment for painting.
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The excavations at Atrañjikhera have contributed towards partial bridging of the knowledge-gap between the Harappan (ending 2000 BC) and the historical era (starting around 600 BC) in India. We find here gradual transition from the OCP culture (around 1600 BC) through B&RW and PGW era to the flourishing NBPW culture (ending up to 50 BC). There are interruptions due to flood but never any violent instrusion of an alien culture.
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The OCP and B&RW cultures most probably came from Ahar, Gilund and Ranathambhor areas of Rajasthan. There were continued uses of quartzite, chalcedony, agate, carnelian and chalcolithic objects. The PGW culture at Atrañjikhera made remarkable use of pure and alloyed copper. The people had revived the Harappan tradition of using bronze and following the earlier examples of alloying copper with tin, lead and zinc. The presence of small quantities of S and Fe indicates that copper might have been smelted from chalcopyrite ore of Rajasthan.
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The most spectacular find of the twelfth century BC, Painted Grey Ware stratum of Atrañjikhera, exhibits one of the earliest uses of iron in India. Apart from 135 iron objects, specific tools used by blacksmiths and carpenters, a few furnaces and slags were discovered. These show that not only were iron goods manufactured at this site, but the smelting of iron ore was also carried out here.
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It is difficult for us to agree with Agrawal and Gaur (Gaur, 1983: 219-20, 496) that iron was made here from iron shale sample collected from the Agra-Gwalior range and assayed by them. Their sample contains 21.69 per cent Fe₂O₃. How could such a poor raw material be smelted to yield a slag containing as high as 63-66 per cent Fe₂O₃? Evidently some better raw material was smelted. We also do not agree with Gaur (Gaur, 1983: 220) that the metallic content was obtained in the ‘fluid form’. In the early days, temperature of the furnace never exceeded melting point of iron, and the metal was obtained essentially through solid state reduction.
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That iron became popular in Atrañjikhera day-by-day is proven by the increasing numbers of the iron specimens found in the successive phases of the PGW culture: A (8), B (46) and C (81). During the NBPW period, iron objects used were larger in number and greater in diversity and sophistication. By the sixth century BC, India had entered into the second epoch (after the Harappan) of urbanisation. This was possible due to the discovery of iron, clearance of monsoon forests, agricultural surplus, making of roads, and widespread trade.
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During the NBPW era, starting from 600 BC, use of sajji maṭṭi as the source of soda and lime, making of glass and uses of agate, carnelian, quartz, jasper etc. were intensified. Varieties of beads, stone and metal objects were fabricated and used. During the Maurya and Śuṅga dynasty, copper and even lead coins were used. India had indeed entered the phase of irreversible urbanisation at the start of the NBPW era.
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Gaur, R.C., 1983, *Excavations at Atranjikhera — Early Civilization of the Upper Ganga Basin*, Aligarh Muslim University and Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.
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Hegde, K.T.M., 1987, “Scientific Basis of the Technology of the Three Ancient Indian Ceramic Industries”, In *Archaeology & History — Essays in Memory of Sri A. Ghosh*, edited by B.M. Pande and B.D. Chattopadhyaya, Agam Kala Prakashan, Delhi, Vol. I, pp. 401-10.
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Lal, B.B., “The Copper Hoard Culture at the Ganga Valley”, In *Antiquity*, Vol. 46, 1972, pp. 282-87; A Note on the Excavation at Jaipur, In *Purātattva*, no. 5, 1971-72, pp. 46-49.
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were used to make beads and bangles and the NBPW was the main pottery. The second phase (c. 300 B.C. to 200 B.C.) is characterized by the use of iron, copper, and terracotta objects. The third phase (c. 200 B.C. to 100 A.D.) is marked by the use of iron, copper, and terracotta objects. The fourth phase (c. 100 A.D. to 300 A.D.) is marked by the use of iron, copper, and terracotta objects.
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During the NBPW age, starting from 600 B.C., the use of iron objects and the casting of glass and terracotta, etc., are quite intensified. Varieties of beads, stone and metal objects were manufactured. The iron objects were used for agriculture and warfare. The iron technology was developed by the people of the NBPW age.
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Reference: Gaur, R.C. (1983). Excavations at Atranjikhera: Early Civilization of the Upper Ganga Basin. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. The site of Atranjikhera is located in the Etah district of Uttar Pradesh. It is a key site for understanding the transition from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in the Ganga valley.
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The lower chronological limit of the twelfth century B.C. Painted Grey Ware culture of Atranjikhera, which is one of the earliest occurrences in India. Apart from this, the site is also motivated by the copper and terracotta, a few furnaces and slags are also found. It is clear that iron work from these excavations at this site, because smelting process was also carried out here.
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It is difficult to fully agree with Agrawal and Chakrabarti (1985: 219-20, 495) that iron was made here from iron shale samples taken from the Atranjikhera rings and analyzed by them. Their sample contains 31.40 per cent Fe O. They could smelt a better raw material, better accessible if slag containing as high as 60-70 per cent Fe O. Evidently some better raw material was smelted. We also do not agree with Gaur (1983: 220) that the metallic content was obtained directly from the ore, because the temperature of the furnace even needed smelting point of iron, and the metal was obtained essentially through solid state reduction.
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That iron became popular in Atranjikhera day by day is shown by the increasing number of the iron objects found in the successive phases of the PGW culture. As we noted (1983: 217) during the NBPW period, iron objects increased.