Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c20.s6: Conclusion
Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c20.s6
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Conclusion
v1.c20.s6.1
We have discussed the Iron Age traditions in India during protohistoric and early historic eras. The dates of the earliest iron age sites in India (Table 12.2) show that the discovery and use of iron started around 1200 BC indigenously and independently in at least three nuclear zones — Karnataka area in the south, U.P.-Rajasthan area in the north and West Bengal-Bihar area in the north-east. There are enough evidences of early experimentation, imperfect reduction, wastage of iron in the slag in the sites of each of the three nuclear zones to justify the theory of indigenous origin. The possibility of Sialk VI iron-making tradition influencing all the three far-away nuclear zones in India almost simultaneously, through the ‘immigrant Aryans or the cairn burial people’ may be safely ruled out. Diffusion of technical knowledge might have taken place, but not necessarily through racial intrusions and invasions.
v1.c20.s6.2
In the ancient world, technical informations and cultural influences spread more easily through trade-links. The active chalcolithic centres enjoyed the benefits of the rudiments of furnace technology and the expertise of metal-smiths. The news of the discoveries related to solid state reduction of iron ore, carburization and surface-hardening of wrought iron must have been transmitted by the traders, and the new knowledge quickly adapted through independent and indigenous efforts.
v1.c20.s6.3
In any case, it is established that Indian iron technology, particularly in the areas of surface carburization, forging and lamination technique, is as ancient as any other tradition outside India. Since iron could not be melted and cast easily, carburization of thin sheets of iron in charcoal fire and subsequent lamination and forge-welding of alternate layers of uncarburized and carburized sheets proved to be a spectacular and useful Indian discovery. Equally remarkable was the early (seventh-sixth century BC) smelting traditions at Ujjain, Dhatwa and Naikund. Naikund iron-smiths could carburize iron to the extent of 1 per cent carbon in the ingot. The technical informations regarding the iron samples in the Historical Period pre-Christian era India are summarised in Table 12.3.
v1.c20.s6.4
The earliest evidence of hardening through quenching and tempered martensitic structure obtained so far, pertains to a third century BC iron sickle from Pāṇḍu Rājār Dhibi. There is a similar example in second century BC iron razor from Ror, Kangra. 0.7 per cent carbon iron equipments have come from Besnagar and Kauśāmbī during the pre-Christian era.
v1.c20.s6.5
The iron tool types developed in different nuclear zones across the ages make interesting study. The earliest iron objects were hunting tools. Table 12.4 shows the distribution of iron tool types in different nuclear zones of ancient India. The megalithic culture of central India produced less agricultural equipments (like sickle) and more swords, bangles and fish-hooks. Arrowheads and sword blades were produced in all sites. Daggers were the specialities in the northwest and the peninsular south.
v1.c20.s6.6
The tool-types went on evolving with progress of time. Prakash and Tripathi (1986: 570-71) divided the period of study up to 600 AD into three stages: early stage (up to 600 BC), middle stage (600 to 100 BC) and the late stage (100 BC to AD 600). Table 12.5 compiled by them shows the various iron tools and implements appearing at the three stages.
v1.c20.s6.7
In the early stage, commonly found hunting tools were arrow- and spear-heads. There were a few sickles and axes, used for agriculture and some domestic items like knives, needles and tangs.
v1.c20.s6.8
Table 12.2
v1.c20.s6.9
The Earliest Iron Age Sites in India
v1.c20.s6.10
| Date | Site | Carbon percentage in iron samples | Remarks |
| 1200-1100 BC | Komaranhalli | 0.05-0.24 | Carburized layer of the spear 0.24 carbon. Pearlitic HV 125-135. Laminated structure. |
| 1000 BC | Tadakanhalli | 0.04-0.30 | Carburized layer of axe pearlitic. 0.30 carbon. HV 130. Lamination technology |
| 1155 BC | Atrañjikhera | 0.18-0.33 | First few samples of Wrought iron in the PGW layer. Slag inclusions 1.3 per cent Al₂O₃, 0.6 MgO, 0.3 P₂O₅ etc. Industry flourished for six centuries. |
| 1250-1050 BC | Pāṇḍu Rājār Dhibi, W.B. | — | Partially reduced iron oxide |
| 1200 BC | Barudih in Singhbhum | — | Carburized iron celts showing pearlite in an otherwise neolithic assemblage. |
| 1100 BC | Mangalkot | — | Iron slag, arrowhead, spearhead etc. |
| 1050 BC | Pāṇḍu Rājār Dhibi | — | Iron dish with lot of fayalite slag inclusion and negligible carbon. Type 'A' iron slag showing first attempt for iron-making. |
| 900 BC | Noh and Jodhpura, Rajasthan | — | Wrought iron, surface-carburized iron, slag in the PGW phase. |
| 800 BC | Alamgirpur, U.P. | — | Wrought iron, surface-carburized iron, slag in the PGW phase. |
| 900-800 BC | Pirak and Swat Valley | — | Iron Age in Northwest India. |
v1.c20.s6.11
Table 12.3
v1.c20.s6.12
Iron Samples in the Historical Period Pre-Christian Era India
v1.c20.s6.13
| Date | Site | Carbon percentage in Samples | Remarks |
| 750-550 BC | Ujjain | — | Arrowheads, spearheads. Early iron samples |
| 528 BC | Ujjain | — | Larger varieties, offence equipments, slags, fluxes, remains of a forge, water jar possibly for water-quenching of hot samples |
| onwards | | | |
| 615-540 BC | 72 Sites around Nagpur | — | Megalith sites |
| | Takalghat | negligible | 98.2-99.1 per cent iron |
| | Naikund | 1.0 | Major smelting site — remains of furnace |
| | Mahurjhari | 0.9 | Banded widmanstätten structure of ferrite and pearlite in the axe |
| 500 BC | Dhatwa | — | Surface hardness of a hoe 117-123; forge-welded laminated structure |
| 600 BC- | Rajghat, Vārāṇasī | 0.12-1.10 | Bent nail shows cementite or iron carbide at grain boundaries — no clear evidence of pearlite. |
| 400 BC | Jājamau | 0.2-0.24 | Axe, laminated structure HV 125-267. Near cutting edge HV 280, C 0.6-0.65 ‘tempered structure’, probably ‘quenched and tempered’ |
| 600-300 BC | | | |
| 3rd century BC | Pāṇḍu Rājār Dhībi | 0.22 | Sickle with a sharp cutting edge. Cu 0.15, nickel 0.13, Co 0.11. VHN 391 in the ferritic region, 549 in the edge which showed ‘tempered martensitic structure’ — a clear proof of earliest quenching of iron tools in India. |
| 2nd century BC | Ror, Kangra, H.P. | — | Iron razor showing massive ferrite and martensite plates-proof of rapid quenching. |
| 125 BC | Besnagar, Vidisha, M.P. | 0.7 | Broken sword used as wedges in Khambāba pillar of Heliodorus, Si 0.4, P 0.2, Mn 0.02. Brinell Hardness 146. Elongated crystals of pearlite upon ferrite matrix. |
| 100 BC | Kauśāmbī, U.P. | 0.74 | Iron arrowhead shows grains of pearlite (nearly eutectoid) throughout the section. |
| 100 BC | Prakash, Maharashtra | 0.32 | Shaft-hole axe showed equiaxed ferrite grains with pearlite spread over the grain boundaries |
| 250 BC-AD 250 | Sringverpura, U.P. | 0.24 | Laminated Knife-plates of wrought iron (carbon 0.1 and HV 100) and carburized iron (C 0.2 - 0.24, HV 125-135) |
v1.c20.s6.14
Table 12.4
v1.c20.s6.15
Distribution of Iron Tool Types in Different Zones of Ancient India
v1.c20.s6.16
| | Zone A | Zone B | Zone C | Zone D | Zone E |
| Arrowheads | • | • | • | • | • |
| Axe | | • | | • | |
| Blades | | • | • | | • |
| Bangles | | | | • | |
| Clamps | | | • | | • |
| Chisels | | | | • | • |
| Cauldron | | | | • | |
| Daggers | • | | | | • |
| Ferrules | | | | | • |
| Fish-hooks | | | | • | |
| Hoops | • | | | | |
| Horse-bit | | | • | | • |
| Hooks | | | | | • |
| Knives | • | • | • | | • |
| Nails | | • | • | | |
| Points | | • | | | |
| Pins | | • | | | |
| Rings | | | • | | |
| Sword blades | • | • | • | • | • |
| Sword | | | | • | |
| Scraper | • | | | | |
| Spearheads | | • | | • | • |
| Socketed tangs | | • | | | |
| Sickle | | • | • | | • |
| Spike | | | • | | |
| Socketed on leaf-shaped shafts | | | | | • |
| Tangs | • | | | | |
v1.c20.s6.17
A — Northwest, B — PGW Area, C — B&RW area in Northeast, D — Megalithic Central India, E — Megalithic Peninsular India.
v1.c20.s6.18
Table 12.5
v1.c20.s6.19
Various Iron Tools and Implements appearing at the Three Stages of Iron Technology in Ancient India
v1.c20.s6.20
Early Stage (up to 600 BC), Middle Stage (600-100 BC), Late Stage (100 BC-AD 600)
v1.c20.s6.21
● indicates *definite existence*; ○ indicates *non-existence*; ◊ indicates *the i confirmed data is not available*
v1.c20.s6.22
| Tool Type | Name of Tool | Early Stage | Middle Stage | Late Stage |
| Hunting Tools | Spearheads | ● | ● | ● |
| | Arrowheads | ● | ● | ● |
| | Points | ● | ◊ | ◊ |
| | Socketed tangs | ● | ◊ | ◊ |
| | Blades | ● | ● | ◊ |
| | Spear lances | ◊ | ● | ◊ |
| | Dagger | ◊ | ● | ● |
| | Sword | ◊ | ● | ● |
| | Elephant goad | ○ | ● | ● |
| | Lances | ○ | ○ | ● |
| | Armour | ○ | ○ | ● |
| | Helmet | ○ | ○ | ● |
| | Horse bits | ○ | ○ | ● |
| | Caltrop | ○ | ○ | ● |
| Agricultural Tools | Axes | ● | ● | ● |
| | Sickles | ● | ● | ● |
| | Spade | ○ | ● | ◊ |
| | Ploughshare | ○ | ● | ◊ |
| | Hoe | ○ | ● | ● |
| | Chisel | ○ | ● | ● |
| | Pick | ○ | ◊ | ● |
| Household objects | Knives | ● | ● | ● |
| | Tongs | ● | ◊ | ◊ |
| | Discs | ○ | ● | ◊ |
| | Rings | ○ | ● | ◊ |
| | Spoons | ○ | ● | ● |
v1.c20.s6.23
| Sieve | ◦ | ◦ | ● |
| Cauldron | ◦ | ◦ | ● |
| Bowls | ◦ | ◦ | ● |
| Dishes | ◦ | ◦ | ● |
| Building materials Rods | ● | ◊ | ◊ |
| Pins | ● | ◊ | ◊ |
| Nails | ● | ● | ● |
| Clamps | ● | ● | ● |
| Pipes | ◦ | ● | ◊ |
| Sockets | ◦ | ● | ◊ |
| Plumb-bob | ◦ | ● | ◊ |
| Chains | ◦ | ● | ● |
| Door hooks | ◦ | ● | ◊ |
| Door handle | ◦ | ◦ | ● |
| Hinges | ◦ | ◦ | ● |
| Spikes | ◦ | ◦ | ● |
| Tweezers | ◦ | ◦ | ● |
| Anvils | ◦ | ◦ | ● |
| Hammers | ◦ | ◦ | ● |
| Scissors | ◦ | ◦ | ● |
| Saw | ◦ | ◦ | ● |
v1.c20.s6.24
During the historical period after 600 BC, the use of iron expanded greatly. There was a profusion of war weapons such as javelins, spears, lances, dagger blades, and even swords and elephant goads. More agricultural tools like ploughshares and hoes were evolved. Domestic items like spoons, saucepans, knives, discs and rings were produced. Equally popular were the building materials such as clamps, pipes, sockets, chisels, plumb-bobs, chains, door-hooks and nails.
v1.c20.s6.25
During the Christian era, Taxila produced a huge number of metallic equipments including iron weapons. We would describe and discuss the Taxilan scenario in chapter 14.
v1.c20.s6.26
In response to the need for stronger and larger buildings, fortresses were built with larger quantities of iron in the form of nails, clamps, staples, sheets, door handles and spikes. During the Gupta period, anvils, hammers, scissors, saws and smithy tools were manufactured, probably for the first time. The famous Delhi Iron Pillar, to be discussed in chapter 19 was made during the post- Christian Gupta era.
v1.c20.s6.27
We would also mention in chapter 19 some of the unsolved problems regarding metallurgy in ancient India: what is wootz; when and where in India was this first made; is it equivalent to Damascus steels; when was the art of heat-treatment and tempering first acquired in India; the mystery of the Delhi Iron Pillar etc.
v1.c20.s6.28
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