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Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c39.s5: Ornamental and Barter Metals

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c39.s5

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Ornamental and Barter Metals

v2.c39.s5.1

Silver and gold were the principal metals in the Vedic era for producing ornaments and the uses as the medium of financial transactions. In the previous chapter we have provided numerous examples of the use of hiranya or gold in the age of the Ṛgveda. This yellow metal was known as harita in the Atharva Veda (AV, 5.28.1, 5 and 9), hariśiprā in ṚV, 10.96.4, probably means yellow (golden) tiara.

v2.c39.s5.2

We have mentioned different kinds of golden ornaments used in the Ṛgvedic era. We need not repeat those names; the items continued to be used in the post-Ṛgvedic period. In Ś. Brā., 5.4.1.12-13 rukma or gold plate is mentioned to contain sometimes a hundered holes (śatavitṛnna), sometimes nine holes (navavitṛnna). Sacrificers often gave as a dakṣiṇā, a golden plate with eight indentations (Āpastamba Sūtra, 9,18, 16-19, 14). Other forms of gold offering were: gold chips or shavings, hiranya sakala (Ś.Brā., 6.1.2.30, 7.5.2.8-9), hiranya iṣṭaka or gold-brick (Ś. Brā., 6.1.2.30). The Ś. Brā., 12.8.3.11 mentions gold and silver plates placed beneath the feet of the sacrificer at the consecration during the Sautrāmaṇi sacrifice. The Āsval. ŚS (10.3) and Sāṅkh. ŚS (15.27) state that a hotṛ priest should sit on a golden cushion (hiraṇyakaśipu), cushion in which gold threads are woven, during the Rājasūya sacrifice.

v2.c39.s5.3

AV, 19.26.1-3 mentioned the bright metal gold ‘born out of fire’:

v2.c39.s5.4

अग्नेः प्रजातं हिरण्यम् अमृतम् . . . सूर्येण
सुवर्णं . . . हिरण्यतेजसा विभाससि
agneḥ prajātam hiraṇyam amṛtam . . . sūryeṇa
suvarṇam . . . hiraṇyatejasā vibhāsasi . . .

v2.c39.s5.5

Gold was obtained after melting the impure metal taken out from the mines (Ś. Brā., 6.1.3.5, Pam. Vi. Brā., 17.6.4). There is mention of nis + tap heating and melting in Jai. Brā., 1.10 and Jai. Brā. Up., 3.34.6. Golden ornaments, mentioned in the previous chapter, were also modelled in silver.

v2.c39.s5.6

Silver or rajata was scarcely mentioned in the Ṛgveda; probably it was not easily available around the Sarasvatī Valley. Eventually we find many references of silver, occasionally substituting gold in ruksma and niṣka. Silver was used in making ornaments like rukma (Ś. Brā., 12.8.3.11), preparing vessels or pātra (Tait. Brā., 2.2.9.7, 3.9.6.5), and molding coins or niṣka (Pam. Vi. Brā., 17.1.14).

v2.c39.s5.7

Śatamāna was clearly a golden (sometimes silver) piece used as medium of exchange of commodities (Ś. Brā., 12.7.2.13; 12.9.1.4):

v2.c39.s5.8

रजतम् हिरण्यम् दक्षिणा नानारूपतया शतमानम्
भवति शतायुर्वैः पुरुषः
rajatam hiraṇyam dakṣiṇā nānārūpatayā śatamānam
bhavati śatāyurvaiḥ puruṣaḥ (Ś.Brā., 13.4.2.10)

v2.c39.s5.9

V.S. Agrawala (1953:471) observed that the śatamāna was mentioned only in the later date kāṇḍas (12-14) of Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa associated with the name of Yājñavalkya, and therefore most possibly the coin was introduced in the later phase of the Brāhmaṇa era (c. eight to fifth century BC).

v2.c39.s5.10

Ś. Brā., 5.5.5.16 subtly explains the function of śatamāna : ‘with gold they do nothing, and yet it is an object of respect. Sāyaṇa explains that gold was not used for actual consumption, but only indirectly as a medium of exchange (Sacred Books of the East, volume 41, reprint 1963, p. 141). In the same passage, Ś. Bra. refers to triṇi śatamānāni hiraṇyāni dakṣiṇā — an offering of three golden śatamānas. These pieces were circular in shape pravṛttau, (Ś. Brā., 5.4.3.24 and 26).

v2.c39.s5.11

According to the Vedic Index, māna in Vedic literature was a measure of weight equivalent to the kṛṣṇala or raktikā (2.152). Thus, the weight of śatamāna taken literally would be one hundred kṛṣṇala, raktikā or rattis. Krsna Yajurveda recommends (2.3.2.1) prājāpatyām śatakṛṣṇalām. Śatamāna seems to have decimal as well as binary fractions. A quarter was known as pāda: śṛṅgayoh daśa daśa padaḥ abaddhāḥ (B.Up., 3.1.1). In Krsna Yajurveda, 3.4.1.4 (also in Kā. Sam, 11.1 and 13.10) aṣṭāprūḍa hiraṇyam dakṣiṇā aṣṭāpadī. This golden coin had eight circular indentations. One-eighth of this money was known as śāna in the age of Mahābhārata (Āraṇyakaparva 134:14) : aṣṭāyu śānāḥ śatamānam vahanti. This means that aṣṭāprūḍa was another name of śatamāna. It may be noted that binary series of weights was found in the Harappan town of Chanhu-Daro. The Brāhmaṇa literature became popular long after the age of Saṃhitā or Brāhmaṇa literature.

v2.c39.s5.12

Manusamhitā mentioned that śāna and other coins could be made of not only gold or silver, but also copper or black metal (iron or lead). We have already referred to the bronze (AV, 10.10.5) and lead (Ś. Brā., 12.7.2.10-12) pieces being used as media of exchange, AV, 5.28.1 mentions in one breath dīrghāyutvāya śataśāradāya harite trīṇi rajate trīṇi ayasi trīṇi. ‘Three pieces (coins) each of gold, silver and ayas (bronze?) for worship to gain long life’

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