Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c44.s5: Minerals and Metals in the Gupta Era Literatures

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c44.s5

Language
English

Contents

Minerals and Metals in the Gupta Era Literatures

v2.c44.s5.1

The political disintegration which followed the dissolution of the Kuṣāṇa empire continued right up to the beginning of the fourth century AD. The Gupta era started on AD 320 and listed till AD 570. Out of this period of two and half centuries, the first one and half (up to AD 467 when Skandagupta died), may be considered to be the ‘golden era’. During the Gupta era, several literatures showed the sustained use of minerals and metals in India.

v2.c44.s5.2

We may recall that at the turn of the Christian era, the Roman traders and writers like Pliny, Ptolemy, the author of The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea noted the diversity of gems, non-gem minerals and metals processed and used in India. The Indians were ‘the first nation who employed minerals internally’. Since the first century AD. cinnabar was used for fumigations which produced speedy and safe salivations. Arsenic and arsenious acids were remedies to intermittants. Mention of stibnite, ochre, realgar in the preparation of medicines is found in Bower manuscript (second half of the fourth century AD). The Bower manuscript (Hoernle, 1893,1907) mentioned the uses of yavakṣāra and sarjikākṣāra (K and Na carbonates), copper and iron sulphates, srotaja añjana, Co/Sb sulphide, calx of brass, etc. in medicine.

v2.c44.s5.3

As early as AD 531-72 Muslim students used to come from Baghdād to India to learn about Indian medicine. Later, Vāgbhaṭa (c. eighth century) mentioned the use of iron and copper sulphates for medicinal purposes.

v2.c44.s5.4

Pakśīlasvāmin Vātsyāyana of the middle of the fourth century AD wrote a commentary on the Nyāyasūtra of Gautama, the first work (c. second century AD) on Indian logic. Vātsyāyana Mallanāga, possibly a different person, who came later in the fifth century AD, referred to sixty-four fine arts (kalās) in his treatise Kāmasūtra which included rūpa-ratna-parīkṣā (testing of precious metals and stones), dhātuvāda (smelting of metals), maṇirāgakarajñānam (the technologies of gems, colouring of glass, mines, etc.) Mining and metallurgy were standard practices in the then commercial life of India.

Aṅgavijjā and Amarakośa

v2.c44.s5.t1.1

Two important compilations made during the Gupta era provide a wealth of information regarding the material culture of the period in India; we would extract from them certain references to minerals and metals.

v2.c44.s5.t1.2

Aṅgavijjā is a text of the Jains written in Prākṛt by Pubbāyariya (Munipunyavijaya, 1957). This text dealing mainly with the science of prognostications contains useful references to the then uses of minerals and metals.

v2.c44.s5.t1.3

The compilation was made during the beginning of the Gupta era (fourth century AD) when the Kuṣāṇa and Kṣatrapa influences were still perceptible in the Western India. The text mentions joṇikā or javanikā, a Greek woman and several kinds of coins bearing foreign influences. Māṣaka, kārṣāpaṇa, nāṇaka were ancient traditional coins of India. Khattapaka was however the Kṣatrapa coin of Rudradāman (AD 150) also known as rudradāmaka. Sateraka was the Greek gold coin ‘stater’ weighing 133.2 grams. Dināra was the Gupta age gold coin, but the name was derived from the pre-Christian era Roman silver coin denarius. Nāṇaka was low denomination copper coin. The Kṣatrapas used lead also for such low-value coins.

v2.c44.s5.t1.4

Aṅgavijjā provided a fairly long list of prevalent professions. There were suvarṇakāras (gold smiths), kaṃsakāra (bronze smith), loṇakāra (dealer in salt), maṇikāra (lapidary, dealer in gems), koṭṭaka (inlayers), etc. Dhātus were classified in Aṅgavijjā into two categories: maṇidhātu (gems) and loha (metals). Probably Yavanajātaka’s notion of dhāmya, something which is bright, was applied to the word dhātu, excluding those which are adhāmya or dull.

v2.c44.s5.t1.5

The metals used were gold, silver, copper, lead, trapu or tin, hārakūḍa or brass, kāla loha (pig iron), kaṃsa loha (bronze), bahu loha (many metal alloy), etc. Also mentioned were tikkhaloha (cast iron) and muṇḍaloha (wrought iron).

v2.c44.s5.t1.6

A special remark may be made of hārakūḍa or ārakūṭa of Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra or brass. It was compared in colour with gold:

v2.c44.s5.t1.7

तत्थ पीतकेसु सुवन्नकं हारकूडकं चेव विन्नेयम्
पंचवरेसु सोवहवेसु य पीत एसु हारकूडकं विन्नेयम्
tattha pitakesu suvannakaṃ hārakūḍakaṃ ceva vinneyam
pañcavaresu sovahavesu ya pīta esu hārakūḍakaṃ vinneyam
(Aṅgavijjā, 1957:233)

v2.c44.s5.t1.8

The bright yellow colour of brass was considered to qualify it as a suitable replacement for gold as suggested by Nāgārjuna.

v2.c44.s5.t1.9

Lohitākṣa (carnelian), masārakalla or marakata (emerald), veruliya or vaidūrya (beryl), gomeda (zircon), phāliya or sphaṭika (quartz) were adored as gems. Khāramaṇi was a general name modified according to colour: raktakhāra (garnet), svetakhāra or vimalaka (pyrite?), nīlakhāra (sapphire), kālakhāra (galena?), etc. The gems like coral, pearl, chank- or conch-shell, ivory, etc. were separately categorised as praṇayonigata or those having biological origin. The metals were beaten, khāramaṇis scalloped, coral and chank were rubbed (ghaṭṭha) and the pearls smoothened (parimaddita).

v2.c44.s5.t1.10

The eyes were decorated with collyrium (añjana), the brows with the lampblack, the temple with cinnabar (hiṅgula), orpiment (haritāla), realgar (manaḥśilā), and the lips with lac-dye (alaktaka). For other decorative purposes were used geruā (red ochre), palepaka (plaster), nīlakadhātu (ultramarine?), sassekechunna (blue vitriol, copper sulphate or malachite/azurite powder?).

v2.c44.s5.t1.11

*Nāmaliṅgānuśāsanam* by Amarasiṃha (AD 450) popularly known as *Amarakośa* is one of the most celebrated lexicons in the Sanskrit language. The author was Buddhist Scholar with a strong leaning towards *Sāṃkhya* philosophy. He compiled a large number of technical words related to minerals and metals. Many of these are from the Vedic sources, Pāṇini and Kauṭilya, which we have already mentioned. We would mention here only some of the additions made around fourth century AD.

v2.c44.s5.t1.12

Like *Aṅgavijjā*, *Amarakośa* contained a list of different kinds of salts such as *sauvarcala* (saltpetre), *saindhava* (rock salt), *yavakṣāra* (potassium carbonate in plant ash), etc. Saltpetre, also known as *naipālī* (from Nepal) was probably used in rocket or fire-works, mentioned as *Yogavārtikā* by Daṇḍi (sixth century AD) in his *Daśakumāracarita*.

v2.c44.s5.t1.13

Some of the other inorganic materials used for decorative purpose were: *tutthāñjana mayuraka akṣa* (blue vitriol or copper sulphate), *sindūra* or *nāgasambhava* (red lead), *kulali* (blue collyrium), etc. *Amarakośa* provided three names for alum: *kāmksi*, *tuvari* and *saurāṣṭraja*. For minerals and gems, alternative names were mentioned: *śubhra/abhra* for mica, *phala/muktā* for pearl, *kulisa/vajra* for diamond. Both *marakata* (emerald) and *vaidūrya* (beryl) were referred to.

v2.c44.s5.t1.14

Some of the new names for metals and alloys are found in the *Amarakośa*: *kupyam* — base metal, *aśmasāra* — iron, *kusī* — wrought iron, *pārada/capala* — mercury, *thuṇa* — iron statue, *vaṅga* — tin. It may be noted that the famous *thuṇa* or iron pillar of Delhi was made in the Gupta era. Tin had a new name *vaṅga* (Bengal); it is significant that tin-based bronzes were being made in the Bengal area (Nālandā, etc.) using Hazārībāgh tin ore or the metal imported from Malaysia. *Ārakūṭa* continued to stand for brass. *Riti* meant brass as well as rust or calx of brass. *Caraka Saṃhitā* had used the same word *riti* and recommended its medicinal use. *Ritipuṣpam* meant flower-like substance from heated brass.

v2.c44.s5.t1.15

*Amarakośa* referred to an iron smith not only as *lohakāra* but also as *vyokāra*. *Kalāda* was silver smith, *saulvika* a copper-smith, and *kāmbavika* a shell-worker.

Varāhamihira’s Bṛhatsaṃhitā

v2.c44.s5.t2.1

We have earlier discussed the valuable references to gem minerals in *Bṛhatsaṃhitā* (*Bṛ. Saṃ.*), a composition belonging to the later part of the Gupta era (sixth century AD). This treatise also contains some useful references to rocks, non-gem materials and metals, which we propose to cite.

v2.c44.s5.t2.2

The colour and plant associations of rocks enabled one to decide whether some rock had subsurface water. The rocks associated with *muñja* or sacrificial grass, or a colour resembling beryl or green gram were likely to yield sweet water (*Br. Sam.*, 54.103 and 107). Land coloured like the sun, fire or ashes (igneous rock) is likely to be waterless (*Br. Sam.*, 54.106). On the other hand:

v2.c44.s5.t2.3

सशर्करा ताम्रमही कषायं क्षारं धरित्री कपिला करोति आपाण्डुरायं लवणं प्रविष्टं मृष्टं पयो नीलवसुन्धरायाम्।। *saśarkarā tāmramahī kaṣāyaṃ kṣāraṃ dharitrī kapilā karoti* *āpāṇḍurāyāṃ lavaṇaṃ praviṣṭaṃ mṛṣṭaṃ payo nīlavasundharāyām* (*Br. Sam.*, 54.104)

v2.c44.s5.t2.4

A copper-coloured earth mixed with gravel or rocks with copper-red spots (probably allude to garnet porphyroblasts) will yield water with astringent taste; red-brown earth makes the water brackish; pale white earth salt-water and blue earth, sweet water.

v2.c44.s5.t2.5

Varāhamihira prescribed several methods for quarrying massive rocks, using the principle of alternate heating and cooling for disintegrating the rocks (*Br. Sam.*, 54.112-114). Presence of horizontal and vertical joints sometimes helped in the quarrying of massive sand stones (like the Vindhyan sandstones). (Lahiri, 1971: 496) Recently a series of stone quarries has been discovered near Chunar in Mirzapur. The Maurya period massive pillar-like stones were carefully chiselled.

v2.c44.s5.t2.6

*Mākṣika* (pyrite) and *śilājatu* (bitumen) powder were recommended (*Br. Sam.*, 76.3) as ingredients in health tonics. The use of alum as a mordant in the dyeing process were suggested:

v2.c44.s5.t2.7

“*Tuvari* (alum), *mañjiṣṭha* (maddar dye), *rāgabandhanī* (colour-binding)”. Earlier, Pāṇini had suggested (4.1.42) the use of various dyes such as indigo, lac and red ochre; turmeric and maddar were mentioned in *Saṃyutta Nikāya*.

v2.c44.s5.t2.8

*Bṛhat Saṃhitā* described several preparations of cements or powders called *vajra-lepa*, characterised as ‘paints or coatings as strong as *vajra* or diamond’. The various recipes included concentrated aqueous extracts of plant products rich in gummy and resinous substances, levigated powder of lac, resins, gummy fruits, concentrated extract of animal matters rich in glue or gelatine, etc. (*Br. Sam.*, 57.1-7). These were used as cements in temple architecture.

v2.c44.s5.t2.9

The metal cement *vajra-saṅghāta* was described as :

v2.c44.s5.t2.10

अष्टौ सीसकभागाः कांसस्य द्वौ तु रीतिकाभागः।

v2.c44.s5.t2.11

मयकथितो योगः अयम् विज्ञेयो वज्रसंघातः।। aṣṭau sīsakabhāgāḥ kāṁsasya dvau tu ritikābhāgaḥ | mayakathito yogaḥ ayam vijñeyo vajrasaṁghātaḥ ||

v2.c44.s5.t2.12

A compound of eight parts of lead, two of bell-metal, and one of brass has been mentioned by Maya and is to be known as vajrasaṁghāta, a metal-joining cement.

v2.c44.s5.t2.13

This was possibly used in hot soldering of broken metallic parts of the idol, made of bronze or brass etc.

v2.c44.s5.t2.14

In a separate chapter (no. 50) on swords, entitled khaḍgalakṣaṇam, Varāhamihira provided some recipes about the hardening of steel which was called śastrapāna or ‘sword-drink’ (the word śastra had been used in Yavanajātaka to indicate steel). A sword rubbed with sesamum oil, and then smeared with an unguent prepared with the juice of the plant arka (calotropis gigantea), the gelatine from the horn of the sheep, and the excreta from the doves and mice, was to be given one of the ‘drinks’; the steel pasted with oil and unguent was made red-hot in fire and then treated with one of the following: blood, ghī, water, milk of mammal animals or fish-bile. Then this had to be sharpened. (Br. Saṁ., 50. 23-25) Another process of heat-treatment was described as:

v2.c44.s5.t2.15

क्षारे कदल्या मथितेन युक्ते
दिनोषिते पायितमायसं यत्
सम्यक् शितं चाश्मनि नैति खड्ग
न चान्यलोहेषु अपि तस्य कौण्ठयम्
kṣāre kadalyā mathitena yukte
dinoṣite pāyitamāyasam yat
samyak śitam cāśmani naiti khadga
na cānyaloheṣu api tasya kauṇṭhayam
(Br. Saṁ., 50.26).

v2.c44.s5.t2.16

An iron weapon treated with a day-old drink made of the burnt powder of bananas (or its ribs) mixed with butter-milk, and then sharpened properly, will not break on stones, not become blunt on other instruments’.

v2.c44.s5.t2.17

Bṛhat Saṁhitā reveals that during its era, the metallurgical activity in the country was intense. Gold was tested, melted, heated in the fire, hammered for testing its purity, purified nikaṣa santāpa abhiniveśaiḥ kanakasya eva adhikatarā amalīkṛtasya to make sacrificial ladles, thrones, images, etc. (Br. Saṁ., 26.9; 43.12; 47.46) Varāhamihira’s statement shows that in India of his time, there were silver mines or rajatākara (Br. Sam., 16.26). Red-hot copper, evidently used for casting into various shapes, was referred to: taptatāmraprabhābhaḥ (6.13). References were made to the metal-smiths who fabricated weapons, and made a living working on fires:

v2.c44.s5.t2.18

शस्त्रवार्ता: जीवन्ति च ये हुताशवृत्या
śastravārtāḥ jīvanti ca ye hutāśavṛtyā
(Br. Sam., 5.35 see also 5.28, 10.4, 85.29 etc.)

v2.c44.s5.t2.19

Archaeological evidences such as copper images of Buddha, Mehrauli iron pillar made during Candragupta II’s reign etc., substantiate the literary claims about the advanced state of Indian metallurgy during the Gupta era. Even later, Vāṇa (seventh century AD) mentioned some of his companions as assayists and metallurgists. Hiuen-Tsang reported widespread use of noble metals and brass in India.

v2.c44.s5.t2.20

The two subjects of astronomy and mathematics were deeply pursued during the Gupta era. One of the outstanding scientists, Āryabhaṭa (born AD 476), emphasized on direct observations and only four elements, de-emphasizing the fifth: non-material ākāśa.

v2.c44.s5.t2.21

The Padārtha-dharma-saṃgraha of Praśastapāda was probably composed in the fifth century AD. It was more than a commentary on the Vaiśeṣikasūtra of Kaṇāda. This treatise gave a new exposition of the subject-matter and important additions to the original work. Chandra’s Daśa-padārtha-śāstra is available only in the Chinese varsion of AD 648.

v2.c44.s5.t2.22

Praśastapāda described the formation of gross bodies from the atoms (aṇu) through dyads (dvyāṇuka) and the structural arrangement (vyūha) of the dyads to triads (tryāṇuka) which gives rise to different qualities in a substance. In Praśastapāda-bhāṣya was outlined the notion of impetus (vega) which accounts for continued motion of a body.

v2.c44.s5.t2.23

Some Buddhist scholars like Dignāga and Vasubandhu had questioned the Vaiśeṣika postulates on atoms. But others like Sarvāstivādin Śubhagupta, who flourished in the second century AD, defended atomism and the idea of a central atom combining with other atoms surrounding it. Dignāga had denied the existence of atom because it could not be separately perceived. Śubhagupta argued:

v2.c44.s5.t2.24

न अणु आभासम् इति प्राहः
चित्त च एतसिकानां च सन्दिधता भवेत् एव
na aṇu ābhāsam iti prāhuḥ
citta ca etasikānāṃ ca sandigdhatā bhavet eva

v2.c44.s5.t2.25

that in that case one had to doubt the existence of mind and the mental phenomena.as well!

Linked texts (14)