Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c45.s4: Uparasa Materials
Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c45.s4
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Uparasa Materials
v2.c45.s4.1
Eight drugs of *uparasa* group, useful in *pāradakarma* or fixation of mercury, were stated to be: *gandhāśma* or *gandhaka* (sulphur), *gairi* (red ochre), *kāsīsa* (ferrous sulphate), *kāṅkṣī* (alum), *tāla* (orpiment), *śilā* (realgar), *añjana* (collyrium) and *kaṅkuṣṭha* (rhubarb) (RRS, 3.1).
v2.c45.s4.2
Four varieties of sulphur were known: red or *śukacancunibha*, yellow or *śukapiccha*, white variety, good for reaction with iron, and black sulphur which may be used as an anti-bacterial medicine. Sulphur was purified by boiling or melting in milk and filtration (3.20-3.22).
v2.c45.s4.3
*Gairika* (red ochre) could be deep red (*svarṇa gairika*) or copper-coloured (*pāṣāṇa gairika*) (RRS, 3.46-3.48). An earlier scholar Nandi was quoted to say that *gairika* is itself a *satva* or metal. *RRS* quoted dissenting scholars saying that *satva* (iron) can be obtained from *gairika* (iron oxide) (3.49).
v2.c45.s4.4
*Kāsīsa* (ferrous sulphate) could be of two varieties: *puṣpakāsīsa*, which imparts black colour to hair and removes pimples (*vraṇaghna*), and *bālukākāsīsa* which looks like *aguru-dhuma* and is either alkaline or acidic in solution.
v2.c45.s4.5
क्षाराम्लागुरुधूमाभं
kṣārāmlāgurudhūmābham
(RRS, 3.52)
v2.c45.s4.6
We know that ferrous sulphate hydrolyses, and the solution is not neutral.
v2.c45.s4.7
*Tuvarī* or alum used to be obtained from the mountain rocks of Saurāṣṭra. This was widely used as a mordant to bind and deepen the colour of a dye such as mañjiṣṭha (RRS, 3.59). Two varieties were recognised: slightly yellow, heavy and brilliant phaṭakī or piṭikā, and white, light and amla or sour in taste, phullikā. The latter was known to react with copper sheets (RRS, 3.61-62) indicating the reactivity of copper with the sulphate ion from alum. Kāṅkṣī described as kaṣāya or astringent is also alum.
v2.c45.s4.8
Tālaka/tāla / haritāla (orpiment) could be of two types: many-layered, golden coloured, heavy, brilliant patra tālaka, and massive piṇḍa tālaka containing less satva or pale yellowish metal (RRS, 3.76-77).
v2.c45.s4.9
Manaḥśilā or realgar came under three varieties: yellowish red, heavy śyāmāṅgī, copper-red kaṇavīraka like kaṇavīra or karavī flower and deep red, heavy khaṇḍakhyā which contains more metal (3.89-90).
v2.c45.s4.10
Five varieties of añjanas or collyrium were described: sauvirāñjana, srotāñjana, nīlāñjana which were antimony sulphide, carrollite (copper-cobalt sulphide) etc.
v2.c45.s4.11
Navasāra, also known as cullikā lavaṇa was produced by burning shoots of bamboos, or pilu woods. Typified as a kṣāra or alkali (3.127-129) it was likely to contain potassium carbonate and potassium chloride; Ray (1956:176) claimed this to be sal-ammoniac or ammonium chloride but confessed that ‘sal-ammoniac, however, cannot be an alkali’.
v2.c45.s4.12
Identity of some of the cited minerals could not be firmly established: Kampillaka from Saurāṣṭra, which looks like brick powder, ‘white or quartz-like gauripāṣāṇa which yields a white satva’, yellow marine nodules varāṭikā, girisindūra ‘inside rocks of big mountains which becomes red on drying’, etc.
v2.c45.s4.13
Mṛddāraśṛṅga was probably litharge or lead monoxide from which lead could be extracted. It ‘came from Gurjara province near the Arbuda mountains, coloured yellow with lamellae yielding lead and used as a hair-tonic’
v2.c45.s4.14
सदलं पीतवर्णं गुर्जरमण्डले
अर्बुदस्य गिरेः पार्श्वे जातं
मृदारशृङ्गकं सीसत्वं केशरं जनमुत्तमम्।।
sadalam pītavarṇam gurjaramaṇḍale
arbudasya gireḥ pārśve jātam
mṛddāraśṛṅgakam sīsasatvam keśaram janamuttamam ||
(RRS, 3.146)
v2.c45.s4.15
Hiṅgula/darada or cinnabar was known to occur in two varieties: inferior grade śukaṭuṇḍa and white-lined, coral-like haṃsapāka (RRS 3.139).
v2.c45.s4.16
Hiṅgula when distilled, released its satva ‘which is definitely like suta or mercury, and has the property of the material which is fixed by sulphur’
v2.c45.s4.17
दरदः पातनयन्त्रे पातितश्च जलाश्रये
तत् सत्वं सुतसंकाशं जायते नात्र संशयः
एतस्मादाहुतः सुतो जीर्णगन्धसमो गुणैः
daradaḥ pātanayantre pātitaśca jalāśraye
tat satvaṃ sutasaṃkāśaṃ jāyate nātra saṃśayaḥ
etasmādāhutaḥ suto jīrṇagandhasamo guṇaiḥ
(RRS, 3.141 and 3.144)
v2.c45.s4.18
It may be noted that the author fell short of saying that the metal obtained from mercuric sulphide was mercury itself — merely stated the close resemblance between the two. As a matter of fact, the metal extracted from hiṅgula in an apparatus like vidyādhara or ḍamaru yantra was called hiṅgulākṛṣṭa and not rasa or mercury (RRS, 8.37 and 9.56-57). Probably it was believed that the property of the end-product (metal) was dependent on the raw material from which it was extracted.
v2.c45.s4.19
For the metallurgical practices, special crucibles were made for which specific raw materials were necessary. Toyamṛttikā, a water-proof paste was made by mixing fine powder of maṇḍūra (rusted iron), guḍa (molass), cūrṇa (limestone) and watery extract of acacia indica; crucible made of this paste was fired before use. Vahnimṛttikā or fire-clay crucibles and seals were made using khaḍiā (chalk), lavaṇa (salt), maṇḍūra (iron rust), milk, etc. This resists intense heat and is impervious to mercury-liquid and as well as vapour. ‘Mercury sealed by this mixture, known to Nāgārjuna, Nandi, Somedeva etc., cannot escape, just like a man bound with an ardent love of a mature lustful lady’ (RRS, 9.64).
v2.c45.s4.20
एतया मृत्न्या रुद्धो न गन्तुं क्षमते रसः।
विदग्ध वनिता प्रौढ़ प्रेम्ना रुद्धः पुमानिव।।
etayā mṛtsnyā ruddho na gantuṃ kṣamate rasaḥ
vidagdha vanitā prauḍha premnā ruddhaḥ pumāniva ||
v2.c45.s4.21
In the tenth chapter of RRS, different kinds of lavaṇa (salt), kṣāra (alkali), amla (acidic liquids) were mentioned. We have stated them in the previous chapters. RRS mentioned that:
v2.c45.s4.22
क्षाराः सर्वे मलं हन्युः अम्लं शोधनजारणम्
kṣārāḥ sarve malam hanyuḥ amlam śodhanajāraṇam
(RRS, 10.96)
v2.c45.s4.23
All the alkalies destroy impurities and the acids are used for śodhana (purification) etc.
v2.c45.s4.24
Many specific plant and animal products such as *taila* (oil), *vasā* (fat), etc. were mentioned and used as reductants, with the belief that they played specific roles, apart from serving the general purpose of reducing minerals to metals in a furnace.
v2.c45.s4.25
Organic and inorganic fluxes (such as *ṭankaṇa* or borax), called *drāvaṇa*, were used ‘to aid in the melting of metals which are otherwise difficult to melt’, i.e., to lower the fusion point:
v2.c45.s4.26
दुर्द्राव अखिल लोहादेः द्रावणाय गणो मतः
durdrāva akhila lohādeḥ drāvaṇāya gaṇo mataḥ
(*RRS*, 10.95)
Linked texts (1)
- Rasaratnasamuccaya — Vāgbhaṭa (alchemist), Sanskrit