Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century: Some Contemporary European Accounts c20: XII. Indian Agriculture

Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century: Some Contemporary European Accounts c20

Language: English

XII. Indian Agriculture

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(By Major General Sir Alexander Walker (circa 1820))

*Agriculture of Malabar. Hindoo Husbandry in general—Condemned by Europeans. How far that censure is just? Their ploughs and implements of Husbandry. The principles of agriculture understood but impeded by the want of capital and impoverished condition of the people. Various opinions and statements. Tanks, Drill Ploughs: irrigation and transplanting. Opinion on the agriculture of Guzerat and Deccan. Malabar Husbandry. Rice—condition of the people different: large farms. Proprietors. Tenants. Slaves and hired Labourers. Soil.*

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Agriculture is the art of cultivating the ground. It is the art of raising all kinds of trees, plants, fruits and grains.¹ It is in fine the most effectual and expeditious method of procuring abundant harvests. This system cannot be perfect without the use of a considerable number of tools and instruments, and of animals subdued to labour. The system will be more or less laborious and troublesome, according to the nature of the climate and soil. These are simple and obvious propositions to which every one will give his assent. It is necessary however that they should be remembered in the course of the following remarks. The state of agriculture in Malabar will form a strong contrast, with that of the first Husbandmen, who had neither ploughs nor beasts of burden. It will also be admitted, that the art of cultivating the soil is the most important of human labours. It is the first step in the progress of civilisation: a compact and numerous population is the result of the industry and ingenuity which produces food.

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It is on the power of augmenting the means of subsistence, that the increase of the people depends.

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In Malabar the knowledge of husbandry seems as ancient as their History. It is the favourite employment of the inhabitants. It is endeared to them by their mode of life, and the property which they possess in the soil. It is a theme for their writers; it is a subject on which they delight to converse, and with which all ranks profess to be acquainted. They have provided a code of rules for good husbandry. A system is laid down for the proper cultivation of the soil. The rights of the proprietor and of the mere occupier of land are distinguished and explained. The Husbandman is protected. The proprietor is secured against bad management, while the cultivator or improver is encouraged. There is a curious analogy between their agricultural Code and that of the Scandinavians. The customs of both people gave a legal sanction to the privileges of the cultivator. The duties of the landlord and the tenant are defined; those of the Master and servant.² The Bondi and the Chirmir were the Husbandmen; they were the slaves of the soil, but yet under a legal protection. The price of labour was paid in Victual: this practice was anciently in Malabar, and is still in many instances followed. The farming leases contained arrangements for the management of the land. Another unfortunate resemblance consisted in obliging the peasants and artisans to work at low rates for Government.³ One of the most remarkable of the rites of Hindoo worship probably owes its origin to their respect for agriculture. Their sacred Bulls, and their superstitious regard for the cow, have their foundation in the great service they rendered to husbandry. Under all these circumstances of favour and encouragement, we should expect that it would be the study of this people to improve the art of cultivating the ground, and that they would in such a length of time have discovered the most convenient and effectual instruments for the purpose. This however has been strenuously denied by those who wish to accommodate the ideas and habits of European Husbandry to that of Malabar. They reproach the Hindoos for employing rude and imperfect instruments. This censure cannot apply equally to every part of India where various instruments are in use, and of different construction. The plough is the first and most important machine in agriculture. In Guzerat it is a light and neat instrument. It has no Coulter but has a sheathing of iron: the furrows of the Husbandman are as straight as a line, and of sufficient depth to produce the most abundant crops. This is the real and only useful test of good farming.

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The form of the plough in Malabar is nearly the same, but it is still lighter, and more rudely constructed. A man may carry one of them on his back. They are nevertheless convenient, accommodated to the soil and the labour. The structure of these instruments, all over India is very simple; but they answer the purpose of the Husbandman where the soil is light, unobstructed by stones, and softened with water.

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In a climate where the productive powers are so great, it is only necessary to put the seed a little way into the ground. If it was buried deeper, it would rot and decay before it could germinate, or it would remain dormant in the earth. This is the case with several roots and seeds, when they are put deep in the ground and as it were interred; the process of germination ceases. It remains dormant for years, until the seed is again brought to the surface, and exposed to the vivifying rays of the sun.

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It is not necessary in this mild and regular climate, to protect the seed from frost and cold. Experience is the best test of every thing. It must be a strong proof that the Indian plough is not ill adapted for its purpose, when we see arising out of the furrows it cuts, the most abundant and luxurious crops. What can be desired more than this? The labour and expense beyond this point must be superfluous. The Indian peasant is commonly well enough informed as to his interest, and he is generally intelligent and reflecting. This is the character of his class everywhere. He is attached to his own modes, because they are easy and useful; but furnish him with instruction and means, and he will adopt them, provided they be for his profit. He will not be led away by speculation and theory, which he cannot afford to follow; but he will not refuse any more economical, and less laborious mode of cultivation. He must have prejudices and ancient habits, which it would be difficult to shake; but let him clearly understand that the change would give him less trouble and better crops, and he would adopt it.

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They have been always ready to receive the roots and seeds of Europe, that suited their climate, and have adopted several which they found to answer their purpose into their regular course of cultivation. All over the world men are attached to their early habits and ancient customs. The History of our own artists and manufacturers would afford many strong instances of this. Although men of superior education and intelligence, it has often been very difficult to make them alter their established methods after science and philosophy had detected their errors.

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I remember that almost 40 years ago an experiment was made on Salsette by delivering to the natives English ploughs and agricultural implements. Some active and enterprising Mahrattah Husbandmen who had but few prejudices were procured: a village was built for them, they were furnished with seed and cattle. They entered on the trial of their own accord and choice. Having adopted the measure it was their interest that it should succeed, and there was no reason that I could ever discover that it failed through any negligence or misconduct of theirs. That it did fail however is certain, and as usual we imputed the failure to the prejudices, sloth, and obstinacy of the natives. I firmly believe however that they judiciously rejected the whole of the cumbrous European machinery. They objected that the plough was too heavy: that the labourer and his oxen were needlessly fatigued: that it therefore performed less work, and that this was not better done for the purpose required than the work of their own plough. It was next observed that the plough was too costly, and similar objections were made to the greatest part of the European equipment. I would not say that this experiment was decisive, or that they have nothing to learn from us, but before we charge them with ignorance and obstinacy for neglecting to adopt our recommendations, we should first be sure of two things; that the new system would give them more abundant harvests, at less expense and labour; and that we have taken all the means and care that were within our power, for their instruction in the art? It should also be well considered how far our agricultural process is suited to the cultivation of rice, the great crop of India, and of which we have no experience.

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The figure and power of the instrument must be suited to the soil and climate. The American plough of Rhode Island does not weigh more perhaps than 40 lbs. It has no Coulter and a man can easily carry it in his arms; but it would be absurd to expect that this plough would answer any where but in the lightest soils.

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The agricultural society which has been formed in Calcutta may diffuse knowledge and correct some errors: they contemplate the introduction of new and useful plants; the improvement of implements of husbandry and stock;⁴ but the Indian Husbandman must be rendered independent and furnished with capital before he can enter into the expensive details and machinery of the English farmer. It can be of little importance to him to rear stock for the purpose of food, where it is only eaten in any quantity by a handful of Europeans. Even this encouragement has generally, if not always, been sufficient to secure at the European stations, an abundant supply of excellent and wholesome meat.

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⁴ [Note text not present on page]

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We ought also to remember that India has very little occasion for the introduction of new plants for food. There are more kinds of grain cultivated perhaps, than in any other part of the world. She has also a vast variety of nutritive roots, and as a fruit, the plantain alone supplies her with the most nourishing diet.

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The potato is cultivated in many parts of India; and I have seen Bramans making their repast on it; but the yam is equally pleasant, and perhaps a more alimental food. I am at a loss to know what essential present we can make to India. She has all the grains that we have and many kinds more of her own. If we should give her some fruits and vegetables, we should first be certain that they are agreeable to her taste. Most of our fruits would be too sour, or would degenerate in the climate. The instrument of taste is likewise very various. There is a national as well as an individual relish for food. It is unnecessary to look for examples, as every man’s own experience, and every nation of Europe will supply them.

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Nothing should surprise us more in the present condition of the Indian cultivator than his persevering industry, and well cultivated fields.

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Any other than a people of a very buoyant spirit would have sunk under these circumstances.

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The Hindoos have been long in possession of one of the most beautiful and useful inventions in agriculture. This is the Drill Plough. This instrument has been in use from the remotest times in India. I never however observed it in Malabar, as it is not required in rice cultivation in which its advantages have been superseded by transplanting. The system of transplanting is only in fact another method of obtaining the same object as by Drill Husbandry. It would be but just to adduce this, as another proof of the ingenuity of this people and of their successful attention to this branch of labour. They have different kinds of ploughs, both Drill and common, adapted to different sorts of seed, and soils.

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They have a variety of implements for husbandry purposes, some of which have only been introduced into England in the course of our recent improvements. They clean their fields both by hoeing and hand weeding; they have weeding ploughs, which root out and extirpate the weeds. A roller would be useless on rice grounds, which are always wet, and frequently an equal mixture of water and mud. The place of the roller is supplied by an instrument which levels or smooths the ground, without turning on an axis. They have also Mallets for breaking clods, the usual assortment of Hoes, Harrows and Rakes.⁵

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It has been objected to these instruments that they are simple, clumsy and crude. This does not however make them less useful. Simplicity cannot surely be counted a fault; in some of our districts the plough is by far too complicated a machine. They are not unhandy to the people who have been in the habit of using them. They appear awkward to us because we have not been in that habit, and because the Indian Husbandman can afford to throw away nothing on ornament. The same instrument painted and smoothed by the plane would have given a very different idea of its value. The judgement of the eye decides more than we imagine. All this however depends rather upon taste and opulence, than on utility. The circumstances of an Indian Husbandman are not to be compared to those of our substantial tenants. They can study effect and appearance, which are in fact essential to their credit as good farmers. It is not however very long since we have painted and polished our ploughs. I have seen them within these few years in some parts of the country covered by the unremoved bark of the tree.

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The numerous ploughings of the Hindoo Husbandman have been urged as a proof of the imperfection of his instrument; but in reality they are a proof of the perfection of his art. It is not only to extirpate weeds that the Indian Husbandman reploughs and cross-ploughs; it is also to loosen the soil, apt to become hard and dry under a tropical sun; and hence it becomes necessary to open the earth for air, dew and rain. These advantages can only be obtained by exposing a new surface from time to time to the atmosphere. In India dews fall much more copiously than they do with us, and they are powerful agents in fertilising land. Weeds also increase with a quickness, and a luxuriance, of which we can form but an imperfect idea in this country. These are sufficient causes for the frequent operation of ploughing, without the necessity of blaming either the Husbandman or his implement. The frequency of ploughing must depend every where on the nature of the soil, its situation, and the purpose for which it is intended. In some cases, our farmers in this country, plough three or four, and even as often as six times.⁶

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It is the practice in many parts of India, to sow different species of seeds in the same field. This practice has been censured, but it is probably done for the same reason that our farmers sow rye grass and clover with wheat, barley; or oats; tares with rye; beans and peas; vetches and corn, etc.

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It has been found by experience that these crops not only thrive in the same field; but improve each other. Rye and oats for instance, serve to support the weak creeping tares, and add besides to the bulk of the crop by growing through the interstices. Clover and rye grass are sheltered by the corn. This analogy will apply to the Husbandry of India. These similar experiments may be carried further, where the climate and soil are superior. In India different kinds of seeds when sown in the same field are kept separate by the Drill, or they are mixed together, and sown broadcast. In the last case they are commonly cut down as forage. A plant called sota gowar, is sown broadcast with sugar cane, in Guzerat. The gowar serves as a shelter to the sugar cane, from the violent heat of the sun, during the most scorching season of the year. Joar and badgery are sown together, in the same country late, not for the sake of a crop, but for straw, which is very nutritive, and very abundant. This is one of the instances in which the natives provide a green crop for their cattle. Other grains are sown both together and separately, merely for their straw. Soondea, darrya joar, rateeja and goograjoar are sown together: but with the exception, of goograjoar which is allowed to ripen, the rest are reaped while they are green.⁷

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It is evident that these examples are not founded on bad principles, and that they are in conformity with the best practice of farming. They evince the care of the Hindoo Husbandman to provide food for his labouring cattle. This is an object to which I have generally seen him attentive; but in many parts of India during the dry season it is extremely difficult, and often exceeds the impoverished means of the cultivator, to lay in a sufficient supply. He is sensible enough of the want, and does his utmost to scrape together, all the heterogeneous substances that are within his reach. In some parts of India, hay is not made, in other parts it is a regular crop, stacked and preserved. This is the case in Guzerat, and some other pergunnahs. The hay is cut down not by the scythe but by the reapers hook: It is dried and brought home in carts. The stacks are generally of an oblong shape something like our own, but often of much larger dimensions than any that I have seen in England. The stack is not thatched merely, but covered and protected, by a moveable roof. In those parts of India where hay is not made and which are I believe unfavourable to this kind of crop, the cattle are fed with the roots of grass, very like our fiorin, with straw, and especially with the straw of joaree, all of which are considered to be very nourishing food. The roots of this grass are preferred by our own people in the Carnatic to hay. Besides the Hindoo in many parts of India, prepares various crops of pulse, solely for the use of his domestic animals. In some places he feeds them with carrots. Lately, an ingenious gentleman has sown with great success, near Kaira in Guzerat, clover.⁸ The seed was obtained from Bussara and produced a most abundant crop. It fed a cavalry regiment, and kept it in excellent order.⁹

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It would require a volume to pursue all the details of Hindoo Husbandry. I shall however mention some other principal features. In many parts of India the fields are fenced and enclosed. This is the case wherever the people live in quiet and security. It is sufficient to show what was the ancient practice, when the Government was good and the country not exposed to the ravages of war. In Guzerat this attention to the security of property was seldom neglected. Even during the native Government, the Ryot was protected in his revenue engagements; in case he might not be able to fulfil them, either from war or adverse seasons. This was effected, by exempting him in his lease, on the event of any of these circumstances occurring, by the phrase ‘Asmani Sultanee’. The enclosures are generally of a square form. The divisions are seldom very large, and are of unequal sizes according to the judgment, interest, or taste of the proprietor. They are remarkably neat, kept clean, and well dressed. These fields have frequently broad grassy margins which are left for pasture, such as are seen in some parts of Yorkshire. The whole world does not produce finer and more beautifully cultivated fields than those in Guzerat. In the neighbourhood of towns, they are commonly planted at the edge, with fruit, and other trees. This gives them the appearance of our Hedge-rows, and they may be compared to the finest parts of England.

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This appearance is not peculiar to Guzerat: it may be found in many other countries of India. I am desirous that these remarks should not be considered as extending to Bengal, of which I have had no personal observation. The gentlemen who have resided in that province seem to agree in giving an unfavourable account of its agriculture, and of its people. They describe the natives as characterised by the lowest and most disgusting vices. If this be so, they should not be considered as affording a just notion of the rest of India. It has however actually been by this mark that the public judgment has been in a great degree formed of the qualities of perhaps 200 millions of human beings, spread over a vast country, and divided into many nations, some of whom are totally unknown in Bengal. This species of amalgamation has happened from the superior wealth and political importance of Bengal, from our connection with it, and from the fallacious practice of drawing a universal conclusion from a particular fact.¹⁰

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My own experience agrees entirely with the neat, accurate and comprehensive view that Colonel Wilks has given of the Husbandry of Mysoor.¹¹ I have seen from Cape Comorin to the Gulf of Kutch details of the most laborious cultivation, of the collection of manure, of grains sown for fodder, of grain sown promiscuously for the same purpose; of an attention to the change of seed, of fallows, and rotation of crops. The rotation may sometimes be imperfectly followed; but it is a system understood and acted upon throughout India, with more or less skill and intelligence. All the changes however which are necessary for preserving the fertility of land in Europe, may not be equally essential to the fecundity of soil, under a climate like that of India. In America, virgin or new land continues for many years to produce crop after crop, without the assistance of manure. In Lithuania there is a regular succession of the same crops: even in Britain in the neighbourhood of towns, where there is a perpetual command of manure, the regular rotation is frequently neglected without impoverishing the land. In the West Indies, where there is no cultivation but the sugar cane, the same crop is constantly produced.

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We may see from all these instances, that though it is a rule of good husbandry to avoid a frequent repetition of the same species; yet it may under particular circumstances be entirely disregarded without any bad consequences. Some places are more indebted for good crops to the natural fertility of their soil than to artificial labour and skill.

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Rice is supposed to be the least exhausting of any crop. It occupies the ground but a short time and binds it less than any other culmiferous plant.¹² The water and moisture by which it is continually surrounded, keeps the soil soft, divided, and pulverized. It is by some causes like these, that the Indian farmer is enabled to repeat the same crop for many years in the same field with this species of grain. We must allow something also to the extraordinary fruitfulness of the soil, and the regularity of the climate.¹³

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In every part however that I have visited the application of manure for recruiting and restoring land is well understood. The people seem to have all the resources that we have in this respect. By littering their cattle with straw, they increase the quantity of manure. They collect leaves, and putrescent substances. When they have no means of rotting the straw, they mix it with dry dung, old grass and even branches of trees, which they place in a heap and set fire to it. The ashes are then spread on the ground. The slime and bottoms of tanks are dug up, and considered to be a valuable manure.

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It may be considered as a part of Indian Husbandry, though by no means a universal custom, as it is only in particular situations practicable, to set fire to the long and luxuriant grasses which the cattle have not consumed. This is not practised in arable husbandry where it is unnecessary. The stubble of a rice field is ploughed into the ground in the same way as with us; but it is resorted to for reducing the natural pastures of the hills, which are beyond the reach of the plough. These luxuriant grasses are burnt and decomposed in order to nourish a new growth. It is the same operation, and for the same purpose, as that of burning heather for improving sheep pasture. This is usual practice in the Concan and Deccan; but it is not so generally resorted to in Guzerat, or in Malabar, as it is not so well suited to the circumstances of those countries. The practice of burning grass is only followed on bare and naked mountains. In those that are covered with trees, such as the Ghats in Malabar, it would be destructive, and is not therefore had recourse to. In the Concan, and where the high lands are generally without wood, and where the grass grows to the luxuriance almost of reeds, the burning system is pursued. Wherever it is practised, the natives consider it as a proof of barrenness, and caused by a curse of one of their gods. The heat of the sun, natural and artificial moisture, and the inundations of rivers, keeps the soil in India in a state of perpetual fecundity and renders it fruitful year after year, as was the case under the same circumstances in Egypt.

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The Indian farmer is again reproached for using his dung for fuel; but an explanation of the fact will in some measure vindicate him from this censure. The dung which is employed in this way (a small quantity after all) is obtained principally from what the animal lets fall on the high road, and which would otherwise be lost. Boys and girls are employed with baskets to gather it up from the roads and streets as in our own country. These children are seldom those of the cultivators, but of any of the inhabitants, most commonly of very poor people, who mix the fresh dung with charcoal or straw, make it into cakes, and dry them in the sun.¹⁴ The boys and girls may be seen in many parts of the North of England employed in the same way; and I have been told that in no very remote time a similar manufactory was carried on all over this country.

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I have already mentioned the Drill Husbandry, as an invention of the Hindoos; that of transplanting which has the same object in view, is equally useful and beautiful. It gives the field the regularity of a garden, and every vacant space is filled up. The operation of transplanting is calculated to afford one fourth more of produce than the broadcast method of cultivation. Many of the details of Hindoo Husbandry are curious and original.

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The practice of watering and irrigation is not peculiar to the husbandry of India, but it has probably been carried there to a greater extent, and more laborious ingenuity displayed in it than in any other country. The vast and numerous tanks, reservoirs, and artificial lakes as well as dams of solid masonry in rivers which they constructed for the purpose of fertilising their fields, show the extreme solicitude which they had to secure this object.¹⁵

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These works were not always executed at the expense of Government; they were often defrayed by the zeal of wealthy individuals, and sometimes by women. The names of these benefactors are still preserved; but they frequently serve only to commemorate a dry spot, and to point out where a tank had been. Perhaps no circumstance can more strongly show the decline of India than the decay of those works, which were at one time necessary to supply with food an abundant population. The bottoms of many of the tanks are now converted into rice fields, and the waters of others run waste. The dry bottoms still retain moisture, and as they are enriched with the alluvial deposits of a former age, they are eagerly seized by the Husbandman, who is sure to be rewarded by an abundant crop. The ruin of these beneficent labours cannot but give to the traveller in passing, melancholy and unpleasant reflections.

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The Mohammedans were probably excited by the example¹⁶ and intercourse of the Hindoos to cultivate the arts of peace, and they also employed themselves in constructing many magnificent reservoirs for water. There was a great distinction however in general between the works of the two people.

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For the most part the tanks of the Musselmans were built for luxury, ostentation and ornament. Many very expensive ones were unfit for irrigation. Ali Merduns canal however, a noble and useful work, was an exception to this remark.

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Besides the great reservoirs for water, the country is covered with numerous wells which are employed for watering the fields. The water is raised by a wheel either by men or by bullocks, and it is afterwards conveyed by little canals which diverged on all sides, so as to convey a sufficient quantity of moisture to the roots of the most distant plants.¹⁷ When these are seen in operation it gives the most cheerful picture of quiet and useful industry, that can occur even to the imagination. The very sight of it conveys to the mind peace and tranquillity.

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I must repeat that I have seen in India the most abundant crops ‘the corn standing as thick on the ground as the land could well bear it’; fields neat, clean and generally without a weed. Infinite pains are taken to extirpate these, and several ingenious instruments have been contrived for the purpose.

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It is hardly possible that a weed can be found in a transplanted field, where every stalk is put in by the hand, and carefully planted.

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The Husbandman in fine labours incessantly to increase his produce, varying his operations according to circumstances, and acting always when he can, on fixed principles. A system of rotation is attended to, but the alluvial deposits make it in many places unnecessary, and local peculiarities, local oppressions, and the want of resources compels the cultivator to forego many advantages: he is obliged no doubt by so many pressing necessities too often to deviate from the best plan; to submit to such shifts and expedients as are within his power. Some allowance should be made for the circumstances of the people, general as well as particular. Some compassion should be felt for their situation, and when we see one district highly cultivated, another in poverty, and the wrecks everywhere of a greater agricultural prosperity in former times, would it not be equitable and just to conclude that ignorance and stupidity were not the sole causes of these anomalous appearances? The flying surveys, partial, and hasty reports that have as yet only been made of their agriculture, are not to be depended upon. It would require the leisure and application of years, much patience and knowledge of the subject, and a judicious allowance for the peculiarities of the climate, to appreciate either the merits or defects of Hindoo Husbandry. In the present political state of India; the connection and dependence of the greatest part of that fine country on the British Government, renders it an imperious duty for us to use every prudent and proper means for the improvement of its condition; but we should be careful in these attempts at amelioration not to throw it back, and to obstruct its progress, by too hastily condemning the practices of the country, which have been sanctioned by experience, and have their utility in local circumstances. The minds and inclination of the people should be consulted wherever their own interests are concerned. In general their experience is the best guide. It is in vain to suggest expensive improvements where there is no capital, where the rent is taken as a tax by Government, and where the proprietory right of the soil is disputed. The cultivation of grain in some places yields no profit to the Husbandman, beyond his mere subsistence.¹⁸ In this case there is neither means, nor stimulus for improvement. Notwithstanding all these disadvantages, the state of agriculture among the Hindoos is respectable: I may say wonderful. Some of the details of their management would furnish information to the European farmer; when they follow a bad system, it is not from ignorance of the true principles of the art, but from poverty and oppression; remove these and improvement would follow. The Hindoos, whatever may be their moral qualities, are a temperate and an industrious people, knowing, and well acquainted with their own interests. In the course of our intercourse with them they have adopted many things from Europe, and they are continually adding when it suits their taste and convenience. If their system of agriculture is bad, they will alter it as soon as we can show them a cheaper and an easier way of procuring more abundant harvests; but this will not be produced by mere theoretical recommendations. We should succeed in altering many of the habits and practices of India, provided it were possible to compel our own habits to mix with the labours of the people. It is more than probable that any great change depending on the introduction of European arts and manners will be introduced by the Half-castes (i.e., those of mixed Indo-European parentage.—Editor.) who are now spreading and multiplying in the usual increasing ratio of population. I shall conclude these general remarks by an extract from a letter of a valuable friend whose intelligence and opportunities of observing the practice of Indian Husbandry, are not I believe exceeded by any man in that country.

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In Guzerat, and indeed in the Deccan, but especially in Guzerat, careful and skilful agriculture, is probably, as much studied as in England. In many points an English farmer might condemn the practice at first sight; but in time he would learn, that much of what he did not approve, under an idea that the same system in all respects that succeeds in England ought to be followed here, was of the first importance; was in fact what constituted the great means of success in this climate and that to depart from the existing practice would be folly. For instance as to ploughing in this country, it is condemned as not being deep enough. The native however knows from experience that the soil at the surface, and which has been well heated by exposure to the sun, is that which yields the best return. It is not uncommon to see them before the hot season plough their more valuable lands roughly, so as to expose as much as possible of the soil to the revivifying influence of the sun. It is a fact too, that in most soils in Northern Guzerat, the lands are more productive, when kept continually from year to year under cultivation, than when allowed to lie fallow: such soils however as improve by a year or two's respite, always receive it. This is not uncommon in the Surat, and even in the Broach district, and in some parts of the Deccan. One of many proofs that were requisite, the system of the natives, is too well founded on experience to reject it.¹⁹

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It is now time to return to the more immediate subject of this article, the husbandry of Malabar. The practice varies in many respects from the Northern parts of India, or where they grow wheat, and other grains which are not cultivated in Malabar. The practice is regulated by the soil, the surface and the crops. In each region of India there is some peculiarity in the mode and articles of cultivation, which must be adapted to the climate, the difference of seasons, and the nature of the ground.

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In Malabar; agriculture, is an important, and an honorable occupation. This is the consequence of this species of property being well established, and an interest created which requires, that every proprietor should understand something of an art on which not only his comfort, but his support must depend. Most of these men therefore are qualified to direct the labours of their cultivators, and many of the Nayrs hold the plough themselves. Some of the proprietors farm their estates to tenants, and live on the rent; but most of them reserve some land in their own hands, and others have larger farms. The order and arrangement are not different from what we find in Europe. The size of the farms vary from one plough to 20. The Chirmirs perform a great part of the labour, but not the whole. Every estate has some Chirmirs attached to it. Some of the largest farms have from 50 to 100 Chirmirs, men, women and children. The oxen and cows are each about the same number as the slaves. Such farmers have also a number of hired servants, and very often a Karrigar or superintendent, who directs the labour of the rest, but does not work himself. The duty and character of this person resembles that of our Bailiff or Overseer.

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These establishments are respectable, they convey an air of wealth and comfort, seldom seen among the peasantry in other parts of India. They recall to mind the proprietors and farmers of our own country.²⁰

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I do not mean to enter into all the details of Malabar Husbandry which will be best explained by the annexed table.( Omitted here.—Editor) A general description however is necessary. The land is generally well fenced and subdivided. The long, narrow and beautiful vallies form indeed natural divisions. The artificial divisions are commonly small, for the convenience of irrigation, and to mark the shares of individuals. The fields, or divisions, are formed into neat and oblong squares. In preparing the ground for rice, they plough twice, and even thrice according to circumstances, before they sow. The first operation is to surround the field with banks, and then to overflow it. The banks are about two feet broad, and raised rather more perhaps above the level of the ground. They serve as well as to keep in the water, as footpaths. Without them the people would be obliged to wade through mud and water, either when they wanted to inspect their fields, or in prosecution of many of their necessary labours. The depth of water in a rice field depends on the particular situation; it varies from six inches to a foot, and even a foot and a half.

c20.48

In some cases a rice field is kept under water until the second ploughing. It is then almost an equal mixture of mud and water. The cattle in this state are of as much use as the plough. The water first rots the weeds and grass, and afterwards nourishes the plant. Water is the most necessary agent of vegetation. The seed corn is sometimes, but not always, soaked for 20 or 30 hours in water. It is then laid in a heap for several days; in this state it shoots and grows. The ground is finally prepared, either for sowing or planting, by dragging a plank over its surface. This levels and smooths the ground; and mingles every thing together. The water is allowed to run out before the seed is sown. It is then sown broadcast, or planted.

c20.49

The planting or transplanting is performed in this manner. When the rice plants appear a few inches above the ground, they are taken up, tied in little bundles, and again put into the same ground, or removed to another field as may be necessary or convenient. This work is performed by the hand, and very commonly by women. The field is again overflowed and kept so until the grain is nearly ripe. The banks are then finally cut and the water escapes.

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Generally speaking about three parts of the stalk of the plant remains above the water. The process in Bengal is very different from this.

c20.51

There is cultivated in Malabar upwards of fifty kinds of rice. They are each distinguished by a separate name, by some peculiar quality, and different modes of cultivation are of course pursued. Some kinds grow on the hills and do not require irrigation. These are called Poonum and Modun. They are much longer in ripening than the usual cultivation. There is one species which is propagated by cuttings, a mode which I never heard of except in Malabar. An account of all the different kinds of rice cultivated in this province, will be found in the tables, at the end of this article.(Omitted here.—Editor)

c20.52

The southern parts of Malabar are more fertile than the northern parts. The former in many situations is capable of producing three crops a year, or rather in 14 months, while very few places in the latter produce two, and in the Wynaad above the Ghats only one crop is procured.²¹

c20.53

Some kinds of rice are found to ripen earlier than others, and to thrive in different degrees of moisture: they have hence not all the same seasons of reaping and sowing. They have their particular situations and soil. In the husbandry of Malabar the skill of the Kudian or cultivator, is therefore exerted, to discover the grounds best adapted to each. He has discovered that it is useful to change his seed: but one crop of rice follows another in eternal succession. The hill rice requires 8 or 9 months to ripen, and that on the inundated fields but three. The hill crop is more precarious, as it depends entirely on a favourable season of rain. In the upper lands they observe a regular rotation. It is in these situations where they grow their green crops: these are confined to a few kinds of pulse, and gingelly or ellu. In these hills they plough for some kinds of culture as often as seven times. But rice is the great article of cultivation in Malabar: they also cultivate, the sugar cane and dholl; and the climate would probably answer for all the tropical plants.

c20.54

The superiority of production is vastly of warm climates. The whole year is fertile. The great drawback is the want of moisture and rain. When the regular supply of water fails, nothing can prevent a sterile harvest. Malabar is however rarely, if ever, exposed to this calamity. In this respect it has the advantage of almost every other part of India. In Malabar the cultivation of rice may be seen at all seasons of the year, and at the same time in every stage of its progress. Nothing can be more rich and interesting than this picture. The appearance of the country is beautiful and various. At one view may be seen the operation of sowing or transplanting in one field: in another the plant shooting above the water, and elsewhere it is quite ripe.

c20.55

The people of Malabar have two sorts of ploughs; one is heavier than the other, but they have both the same simple construction. The Malabar ploughs have only one handle. It is curious that this is the case also with the plough of the south of France, that of Suffolk, and the Shetland Islands. This is one of those resemblances which belongs to taste and fancy, rather than to imitation. We may be surprised that people who live so remote from each other, and under such different circumstances, should have come to adopt the same apparently feeble and inconvenient structure of this indispensable instrument. We can only answer, that they must have been led to it by some practical or imaginary advantage, and that habit has made it convenient.

c20.56

The obstacles to cultivation here are few. A farmer in Europe would follow the same principle. His ploughs are constructed to suit the nature of the soil, and the work they have to perform. The same sort of ploughing that is necessary for a wheat crop, would not be proper in the cultivation of rice. Husbandry is never disgraced in Malabar by yoking together animals of a different species. Moses forbids the Israelites to plough with an ox and an ass together as a lesson of moral instruction: ‘Be not unequally yoked, etc.’

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The Malabar plough is dragged by a pair of oxen, and driven by one man. The Husbandman repairs to the field before the dawn of day and leaves it at sunset. He takes his repast, and rest under the shade of a tree. His wife and children accompany him.

c20.58

Like the Hindoos, the Greeks and the Egyptians had no Coulter to their plough. Such also are those used in the south of France, and in general in all hot countries.²² It has been from this conjecture that tillage was invented by those nations which inhabited a light and loose soil.²³

c20.59

The ancients, also like the people of Asia, made use only of oxen in tillage. The Greeks who speak of Bacchus as the inventor of agriculture, say he was the first that brought oxen out of India into Europe.²⁴ We may infer from this that they considered the art of cultivating the ground, to have come from India.

c20.60

The corn is reaped by the sickle, men and women engaging in this labour. It is not allowed to remain long in the straw, and is separated in the field by the ancient, and simple method of treading it out by oxen. It is evident that this method could only answer in a country, where the climate was regular, and the sun powerful. The process of thrashing, drying and winnowing, are all finished together. The grain is carried home in baskets, or in bags, which is performed by men and bullocks. It is then put into larger baskets, plastered in the inside with cow-dung, to exclude the air, and to protect the corn from vermin. It is lastly deposited in a granary. In some other parts of India the baskets are buried in the earth, but this can only take place in a dry soil and one which does not abound in springs, which is not the case in Malabar.

c20.61

In Malabar the natives make use of no wheel carriages. All the labour of conveyance is performed by bullocks and men. This is the case also in Persia and among the Afghans.²⁵ What causes could have prevented these nations from adopting one of the most useful arts? They must have been acquainted with its advantages by their neighhours, who carry on their inland commerce on carts; and chariots seem to have been part of the warlike machinery of rude people. The nature of the country, and the rice cultivation of Malabar, are unfavourable to carriages; but these obstacles could not operate in every situation, and could not be very difficult to overcome.

c20.62

It is evident that the nature of the soil, must have great influence in determining the operations of the Husbandman. The fertility of land in India, depends on the access to water, and the regularity of the periodical rains, as much as on the fruitfulness of the soil. These supplies are particularly requisite in a country where the soil is hard and cohesive during the half of the year, except on the sea-shore where it is sandy.

c20.63

In Malabar the soil is classed in point of productiveness under three sorts. They form their judgment of its quality by the following experiments and process.

c20.64

The first sort is called Pasheemah Koor. This is the highest quality of soil, and consists of rich clay. In order to discover its relative properties, they dig a pit about a yard deep, and as much wide. If the soil is of the kind in question, the hole will not receive, the earth that was dug out of it, when returned back, by a considerable quantity. The natives assure us that the hole cannot be made to contain the whole of the earth even by pressure, as by stamping with the foot, and beating it down with a spade, or a piece of wood. This earth is very adhesive and unctuous. It sticks when handled to the fingers like grease; hence, its name, Pashee signifies paste or grease, and Koor, kind relatively considered.

c20.65

The second is called Rashee Pasheemah Koor; ground of an equal or middling sort. To determine its quality, they dig a hole as before; but on returning the earth into the hole it will be exactly filled, and appear level with the rest of the field. This earth will also stick to the fingers, but not so adhesively as the first. It has therefore the epithet Rashee, which implies a mixture of earth and sand, which are united with the rich clay of the former soil.

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The third kind of soil is simply called Rashee Koor, a term descriptive of its poverty. This is very poor light land. The earth in this experiment, when returned into the hole, will not fill the pit. This soil consists merely of loose sand.

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It is curious and not a little interesting that these experiments correspond exactly with those of Lord Kairns in his theory of fertilising soils. He says: ‘Some earths fill not the hole out of which they were dug: some do more than fill it. Poverty occasions the former; the pores are diminished by handling which makes it more compact. Solidity occasions the latter; clay swells by stirring and continues so, till its former solidity be restored by the power of gravity.’²⁶ It is equally remarkable that these experiments of the Malabar farmer, should correspond with Sir H. Davy’s philosophical observation; ‘that the fertility of soils is in proportion to their power of absorbing moisture’. ‘Alumina, or pure clay,’ he says, ‘is the earth to which soils owe their fertility.’ He adds: ‘Soil with too great a proportion of sand is absolutely sterile.’²⁷

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It is certainly a singular circumstance, that this theory, the discovery of science, should be understood and acted upon by the Hindoo peasants.

c20.69

It has been observed that although the Hindoos live chiefly on vegetable diet, they cultivate few horticultural plants, and pay little attention to gardening. In this climate the whole country may be called a garden, and nature furnishes many things spontaneously which elsewhere can only be obtained by the most laborious exertions. Their abstemious habits are easily satisfied, and a small spot is sufficient to raise all the plants which they require: These are confined to spinnage and some of the Brassica tribe. The chilly or red pepper, some badjee or spinnage, some cucumbers and pumpkins, and a few flowers, compose the principal articles in their little gardens. This is merely because these articles are daily and hourly wanted for their culinary purpose, and to save the trouble of going into the fields for them. Cucumbers, melons, pumpkins, the brinjal, bendy, a variety of beans, or pulse, and yam, are cultivated on a more extensive scale. These are reared in the common fields, and as a regular crop, particularly the yam, which attains great perfection in Malabar. But corn and fruit trees are the great objects of attention. The soil of the Malabar vallies is alluvial earth.

c20.70

They study with particular care the changes of weather and the seasons. At the full and new moon, rain and dew fall more copiously and the Husbandman regulates many of his operations by the phases of this planet.

c20.71

The stars are consulted and the astrologer opens his books. But it is not altogether an idle superstition, that plants ripen and grow faster under some of these changes. It was probably with more reason, than we are aware of, that the stars were formerly consulted even in Europe, before the farmer committed his seed to the ground. It was strictly recommended that they should not begin to sow before the setting of the stars.28 They had in Europe, as well as in India, astrologers, to foretell the seasons, and to write horoscopes.

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Bacon says in his Natural History, that seeds, hair, nails, hedges, and herbs, will grow soonest, if set or cut in the increase of the moon.

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