Ancient Indian Education: An Inquiry into its Origin, Development, and Ideals c4.67

c4.67

The *Upanishads* show us the theory of the four *āśramas*, or stages of life, in process of formation. The word *āśrama* (from the root *śram*, to exert oneself, or to perform austerities) means first of all a place where austerities are performed, or a hermitage, and secondly, the action of performing austerities. So the period of studentship of the *brahmachārī* was regarded as a time of discipline, or an *āśrama*. But the Brāhmanical system tended to extend the idea of *āśrama* over the whole life. Thus after the period of studentship a young man might enter upon the second stage, that of a *gṛihastha*, or householder. Then after having brought up a family and done his duty in the world he could enter upon the life of a *vānaprastha*, or forest hermit, and later became a *sannyāsī*, or wandering ascetic, who had separated himself from all attachment to the world, and having attained the knowledge of the *Ātman*, waited only for death to bring about his final emancipation. But this complete theory of four *āśramas* was not worked out all at once. In the *Upanishads* we see only its beginnings. Thus in one passage in the *Chhāndogya Upanishad* there is mention of only the student and the householder, while in another² passage the asceticism (*tapas*) of the hermit is mentioned along with these as a third branch of duty. They are not, however, regarded so much as a progressive series as alternatives.³ These passages also refer only to three *āśramas*, and contrast with them the man who knows the *Ātman*. The position of the latter came in course of time to be regarded as a fourth *āśrama*. It was not, however, till much later times that the third and fourth were clearly separated, and the complete theory of the four stages worked out. When this was done the whole of life was looked upon as an education for the life beyond with four distinct stages, of which the life of studentship was only the first, though we cannot tell to what extent the practice corresponded to the theory, and it would seem likely that the ideal was never fully attained except by the few.