Vanaspati: Plants and Plant-Life as in Indian Treatises and Traditions c5.s7: Section VII. Taxonomy

Vanaspati: Plants and Plant-Life as in Indian Treatises and Traditions c5.s7

Language: English

Section VII. Taxonomy

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1. Nomenclature.—The naming of plants constitutes a highly interesting topic, full of historical and cultural significance, showing us at once a good deal of the accurate knowledge of the geography of India, and throwing an interesting sidelight upon the brisk intercourse among the different parts of India, and giving us unmistakable proofs of the power of scientific observation.

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In the second volume¹ of his "Botanical Observation on Select Indian Plants" Sir William Jones, the President-Founder of the Asiatic Society, Bengal, writes—

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¹ A Review, XXXIII.

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"I am very solicitous to give Indian plants their true Indian appellations, because I am fully persuaded that Linnaeus himself would have adopted them had he known the learned and ancient language of this country, etc."

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The plants² have been named according to—

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² Only a few examples under each are given as illustration.

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A. Special association:

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(i) *Bodhi-druma* (Ficus religiosa)—so called after Buddha's attaining nirvāṇa under it.

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(ii) *Aśoka* (Saraca indica)—so called after legendary association with *Aśoka* forest in which Sītā, that pink of chastity, was confined.

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(iii) *Śivaśekhara* (Datura)—as the flower is associated with Śiva, the Indian god of destruction.

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(iv) *Yajñadumura* (F. glomerata)—associated with sacrifice—*Homa*.

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B. Special property:

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(a) Medicinal:

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(i) *Dadrughna* (Cassia fistula)—that which cures ring-worm.

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(ii) *Arśoghna* (Amorphophallus campanulatus)—that which destroys piles.

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(iii) *Śothaghna* (Boerhavia repens)—that which destroys dropsy—œdema.

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(iv) *Abyathā* (Myrobalan haritakī)—that which takes away pain.

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(v) *Kusthanāśinī* (Somaraji)—that which cures leprosy (skin disease).

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(vi) *Lodhra* (Symphlocos racemosa)—that which stops ocular discharge.

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(b) Domestic utility:

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(i) *Vānīra* (Cane)—it is desired for making houses.

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(ii) *Dantadhābana* (Acacia catechu)—required for cleansing the teeth.

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(iii) *Kārpāsa* (Cotton)—that out of which clothes are weaved.

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(iv) *Dhanudruma* (Bambusa)—that out of which bows are made.

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(v) *Lekhana* (Reed)—from which *lekhani* (pens) are made.

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(vi) *Agnimantha*—(Premna spinosa or serratifolia)—gathered for kindling fire.

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*C. Special characteristic features:*

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(i) *Phenila* (Soap berry)—its seeds give lather or foam with water.

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(ii) *Bahūpāda* (Ficus bengalensis)—many legged—with prop or pendent roots serving as so many legs.

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(iii) *Sitisāra* (Diospiros sp.—a sort of ebony)—black is its wood.

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(iv) *Ātmagupta* (Dolichos pruriens)—self-protected fruits having been provided with spiny hairs, also highly poisonous.

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(v) *Charmin* (Bhojapatra)—with wide *charma* (bark).

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*D. Special morphological features:*

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(a) *According to the number of leaflets in the compound leaf:*

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(i) *Dwipatra* (Bauhinia)—evidently wrong.

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(ii) *Tripatra* (Wood apple)—with three leaflets.

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(iii) Saptaparṇa (Echites scholaris)—with seven leaflets.

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(b) Nature or shape of leaf :

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(i) Dīrghapatraka (Cane-ratan)—with very long leaves.

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(ii) Kīśaparṇī (Achyranthes sp.)—leaves having the shape of the ear of a monkey.

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(iii) Mūṣikaparṇī (Salvinia)—whose leaves resemble the shape of the ear of a mice.

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(iv) Aśvaparṇaka (a variety of Shorea robusta)—leaves resemble the shape of the ear of a horse.

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(v) Pañcāṅgula (Ricinus)—with palmate and five-ribbed leaves.

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(vi) Kaṇṭakapatrikā (Brinjal)—having prickly leaves.

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(i) Vakrāpuṣpa (Sesbania grandiflora)—with papilionaceous flowers.

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(ii) Hemapuṣpa (Michelia champaca)—flowers having the colour of gold.

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(d) Miscellaneous :

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(i) Śatamūlī (Asparagus)—with hundred roots (many).

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(ii) Śataparvikā (Grasses)—hundred (many) joints (parva) in its stem.

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(iii) Tvaksāra (Bamboo)—with hard (woody) skin.

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(iv) *Drumotpala* (Pterospermum acerifolium)—lotus-like flowers on wood.

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(v) *Apuṣpaphalada* (Jack-fruit)—fruit without (apparent) flowers.

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*E. Local association:*

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(i) *Saubīra* (Zizyphus jujube)—indigenous of Saubir (Sourāṣṭra).

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(ii) *Chāmpeyā*—(Michelia sp.)—indigenous of Champā—Bhagalpur.

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(iii) *Māgadhī* (Jasmine or Piper longum)—indigenous of Magadha—North Behar.

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(iv) *Odrapuṣpa* (China rose)—indigenous of Odra—Orissa or China ?

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(v) *Vaidehī* (Pepper)—indigenous of Videha—Mithilā—North Behar.

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(vi) *Drāviḍaka* (Pīta śathi)—indigenous of Draviḍ—the Deccan.

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*F. Environmental association:*

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(i) *Nadīsarjja* (Arjun—Terminalia arjuna)—grows on the banks of rivers.

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(ii) *Jalaja* (*Hijal*—Barringtonia acutangula)—grows in water.

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(iii) *Vānaprastha* (Bassia latifolia)—grows in woodlands.

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(iv) *Paṅkerūha* (Lotus)—grows in mud.

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(v) *Maruvaka* (Ocimum sp.)--grows in deserts.

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(vi) *Hemavati* (Myrobalan)—grows on cold mountain.
(vii) *Kutaja* (Holarrhena antidysenterica)—grows on mountain peaks.

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G. **Other characteristics:**
(i) *Vakula* (Mimusops)—often cited by poets.
(ii) *Sitabhiru* (Jasmine)—dies in (afraid of) winter.
(iii) *Maghya* (Kunda)—flowers in *Magha* (February).
(iv) *Saradi* (Jussieua repens or white lotus)—flowers during Autumn (*Sarat*).
(v) *Tishyaphala* (Phyllanthus) — fruits in *Pous* (December-January).
(vi) *Bhutabasa* (Bayeda)—ghosts haunt these plants.

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It may be noticed that the Hindu nomenclature of plants went further in this direction, being not satisfied with giving them denominations after particular features. It gave most of the plants double names—one based on a salient external feature (परिचयज्ञापिका संज्ञा), and the other on some prominent medicinal or other properties (गुणप्रकाशिका संज्ञा). Thus:

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1. The plant Sesbania grandiflora is known as *Vakrapushpa* (curved flowers), *i.e.*, with papilionaceous flowers, and also *Vranari* (the foe of boil) on account of its preventive property against that malady.

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2. Ricinus communis is known as *Chitravīja* (having painted seeds), *Triputiphala* (with trilobed fruits), and also *Vātāri* (the enemy of rheumatism).

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3. Balanites Roxburghii is known as *Tikshṇa-kaṇṭaka* (having sharp thorns), *Tailaphala* (having oily seeds), and also *Śūlāri* (destroyer of pains).

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4. Achyranthes aspera is known as *Khara-mañjarī* (having long and rough spikes), and *Kiṇihī* (killer of itches, boils, etc.).

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5. Linum usitatissimum is known as *Nīlapushpikā* (blue-flowered), and *Pichchhilā* (having slippery, *i.e.* mucilaginous seeds).

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6. Calotropis gigantia is known as *Kshīra-kāṇḍaka* (having stems with milk), *Tūlāphala* (having wooly fruits), and *Kharjjūghna* (ringworm-killer).

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7. Cassia fistula is known as *Svarṇapushpa* (with golden flowers), *Dīrghaphala* (long fruits—*lomentum*), and *Kushṭhasūdana* (curer of leprosy).

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8. Datura alba is known as *Kaṇṭaphala* (having spiny fruits), *Ghaṇṭāpushpa* (having bell-shaped flowers), and *Mahāmohī* (great intoxicator).

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9. Indigofera tinctoria is known as *Nīlapushpī* (blue-flowered), and *Rañjanī* (dyer).

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10. *Butea frondosa* is known as *Triparṇa* (trifoliate), and *Kṣāra-śreṣṭha* (chief of alkalies).

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11. *Acacia arabica* is known as *Yugakaṇṭa* (with two spines), *Mālāphala* (having beaded fruits) and *Kaphāntaka* (ender of cough).

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2. Classification of Plants.—The Hindu classification of plants was based upon three distinct principles, namely :

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A. UDBHIDA—BOTANICAL, B. VIRECHANĀDI—MEDICINAL, C. ANNAPĀNĀDI—DIETIC.

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A. Classification on Botanical Principles.—A broad classification of plants, probably based on stature, into Trees, Shrubs, Herbs and Creepers is to be found as early as in the texts of the Rigveda.¹ Plants were further classified into those that bore fruits and flowers and those that did not.

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¹ Rigveda X, 97, 15.

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*Manu's classification*² of plants is distinctly clear. According to him :

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² Manu-saṃhitā I, 46, 47, 48

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(1) Those that bear abundant flowers and fruits, and wither after fructification are called *Oshadhis*, *e.g.*, Rice and Wheat (annuals).

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(2) Those that bear fruits without evident flowers are called *Vanaspatis*.

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(3) Both those which produce flowers only and those which produce fruits only may be classed as *Vrikshas*.

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(4) Bushy herbs of various types may be classed as *Guchchha*, *e.g.*, Jasminum (*Mallikā* and the like).

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(5) Succulent shrubs of various types are known as *Gulmas*.

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(6) Grasses of different kinds are called *Triṇas*.

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(7) Creepers with stems spreading on the ground (procumbent and decumbent) are called *Pratānas*.

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(8) Lastly there are those which twine round or climb a tree or a support called *Vallīs*.

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*Charaka*¹ classifies plants into four orders : *Vanaspatis*, *Vīrudhs*, *Vānaspatyas* and *Oshadhis*.

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¹ Sūtrasthāna I, 36, 37.

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(1) *Vanaspatis*—are trees that bear fruits without flowers.

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(2) *Vānaspatyas*—are trees that bear first flowers and then fruits.

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(3) *Oshadhis*—are those herbs that wither after fructification.

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(4) *Vīrudhs*—are herbs with spreading stem, *e.g.*, creepers and gulmas. (लतागुल्मादिः ).

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*Chakrapāṇi*, as Dr. Seal points out, notes in his Commentary on Charaka—*Vīrudhs* comprise two classes. (1) *Latās*—creepers, and (2) *Gulmas*—herbs with succulent or cactaceous stems and shrubs. The *Oshadhis* are subdivided into (1) annuals or perennials, bearing fruit, and (2) plants that wither away after maturing and without fructification, *e.g.*, grasses like the *Dūrvā* (Cynodon dactylon).

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*Suśruta*¹ lays down almost an identical classification of plants. Thus “the immobile *Oshadhis* (plants in general) in their turn admit of being grouped under four sub-heads, such as the *Vanaspatis*, the *Vrikshas*, the *Vīrudhs* and the *Oshadhis* proper.

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¹ Sūtrasthāna, I, 23, also *cf.* Eng. Trans., Vol. I, p. 12.

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“Those trees which bear fruit without blossoming are called *Vanaspatis*; those that bear both fruits and flowers are called *Vrikshas*. Shrubs and creepers that trail on the ground are called *Vīrudhs*, whereas those plants which die with the ripening of their fruits are called *Oshadhis* proper.”

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The commentator *Dalvana*,² as summarised by Dr. Seal, gives us some details, *i.e.*, illustrations of each class. “The *Plaksha* (Ficus infectoria) and the *Udumbara* (Ficus glomerata) are given as instances of trees bearing fruits without flowers (*Vanaspatis*). It appears that plants with naked and incomplete flowers (achlamydeous flowers) were considered as flowerless, as also trees whose flowers, like those of the fig, are placed on the internal walls of a common receptacle (*hypanthodium*). Of the *Vrikshas*, flower and fruit-bearing trees, the mango tree, the *Jambu* tree (Eugenia jambolana), *etc.*, are given as examples. The *Virudhs* are of two classes—(1) creepers with stems spreading on the ground (प्रतानवत्यः), and (2) herbs with succulent or (cactaceous) stems (गुल्मिन्यः or स्तम्बिन्यः वर्त्तुललतासन्ततिविशिष्टाः). *Oshadhis* are those that wither away after fructification, *e.g.*, wheat, barley, *etc.* (फलपाकनिष्ठा गोधुमादयः). Some divide *Oshadhis* into two classes:

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² Seal, Positive Science, p. 170.

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(1) those that wither after bearing fruits, *e.g.*, paddy, linseed, pulses, *etc.*, and

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(2) plants that wither after maturity, and bear neither flowers nor fruits, *e.g.*, the mushroom, *etc.*”

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The *Vaiseshika* commentator *Prasastapada*¹ gives us a nicer classification of plants under six heads. Thus plants are divided into *Trinas*, *Oshadhis*, *Vrikshas*, *Latas*, *Avatanas* and *Vanaspatis*. (स्थावरा तृणोषधिबल्ललतावतानवनस्पतयः इति). *Trinas* are grasses. *Oshadhis* are herbs that wither after fructification. *Vrikshas* are trees bearing flowers and fruits. *Latas* are spreading and creeping herbs. *Avatanas* are arboraceous plants and shrubs. And *Vanaspatis* are trees bearing fruits without flowers.

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¹ The Vizianagram Sanskrit Series, Vol. IV, p. 28. Benares, 1895.

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*Sridhara*² in his *Nyaya Kandali* gives us illustrations of each of the above classes:—Thus *Ulapa* (*Imperata arundinacea*) as an example of *Trina*, wheat as an example of *Oshadhi*, *Kovidara* (Bauhinia) as an example of *Vriksha*, *Latā* is too well known to need any illustration, *Ketakī* (Pandanus odoratissimus) and *Vījapuraka* (Citrus medica) as examples of *Avatānas* (Vitapas—arboraceous plants, Seal) and the *Udumbara* (Ficus glomerata) as an example of *Vanaspati*.

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² The Vizianagram Sanskrit Series, Vol. IV, p. 28. Benares, 1895.

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*Udayanāchāryya* in his *Kiraṇāvalī*¹ gives illustrations of these classes which are almost identical with the preceding. Thus these are the plants:

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¹ Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, No. 1342 (1912), Fasc. III, p. 256.

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(1) *Vrikshas*—are plants that bear flowers and fruits and have trunks and branches. (स्कन्द-शाखिनः ).

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(2) *Triṇas*—are *Ulapas* and plants of that type.

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(3) *Oshadhis*—are plants that wither after fructification, such as *Kalama* (a species of paddy).

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(4) *Gulmas*—are plants like *Bhāṭhās* (भाठाः ?).

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(5) *Latās*—are plants such as *Kushmāṇḍa* (a species of Cucurbita) and the like.

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(6) *Avatānas*—are *Ketukīs* and plants of the type.

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(7) *Vanaspatis*—are trees that bear fruits without flowers.

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The same authority in his selection of articles erroneously mentions palm as a further illustration of *Triṇas* (तृणग्रहणेनैव तालादयः ), and sesamum and paddy of *Oshadhis* (ओषधिग्रहणेनैव तैलतण्डुलादयः ).

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The classification given in the *Bhāgavata-purāṇam*¹ is almost the same. It, too, classifies them under six heads (वनस्पत्योषधिलतात्वक्सारावीरुधो द्रुमाः )—

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¹ 3rd Skanda, 10th Chap., 19th Verse, with Śrīdhara Swami's Commentary.

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(1) *Vanaspatis*—those that bear fruits without flowers.

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(2) *Oshadhis*—those that wither after fructification.

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(3) *Latās*—those that climb on others.

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(4) *Twaksāras*—those that have hard bark (त्वक्) like bamboos.

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(5) *Virudhs*—bushy shrubs.

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(6) *Drumas*—those that bear both flowers and fruits.

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Amara's classification of plants is very interesting being full of details showing a further advance in knowledge, and we cannot here do better than fully utilise the masterly summary done by so great a writer as Dr. B. N. Seal:² (1) The trees (the flowering *Vrikshas* and the flowerless *Vanaspatis*) are fruit-bearing and possess woody stems काष्ठदारु or trunks (प्रकाण्ड-प्रकाण्डः स्कम्भः स्यान्मूलान् शाखाविस्तरः ).

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² Seal, Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, pp. 171-173

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(2) *Arboraceous plants* and *Shrubs* (क्षूप, क्षुपशाखाशिफः ) bearing flowers as well as fruits.

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(3) The *Latās* are next noticed, flowering plants with herbaceous stems, some of them creeping on the ground (प्रतानिनौ ), others succulent (गुल्मिनौ ), others twining or voluble (मूलाव्यांगता लता, वृक्षगामिनी लता) *Cf.* Suśruta—लताप्रतानवत्यः गुल्मिन्यश्च ।

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(4) Next the *Oshadhis* (in the narrower sense), herbaceous plants bearing fruits with or without flowers and dying or withering away after fructification. Some instances of *Kanda-śāka* (tubers, rhizomes, corms) are noticed, *e.g.* *Palāndu* (the onion, पलाण्डु सुवन्दकः), the *Laśuna* (garlic, महाकन्दः ), etc. But the graminaceae enumerated in the *Vaiśyavarga* are the chief instances of the *Oshadhis*—plants that die after fructification. These are cultivated *Oshadhis* but their affinities with the next class, the grasses (*Triṇas*) are also noted (*e.g.* धान्यं व्रीहि स्तम्बकरी । स्तम्बो गुच्छस्तृणादीनाम् । तृणधान्यानि नीवाराः, etc.).

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Next are enumerated—

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(5) the *Triṇas*, grasses of which the characteristic is the formation of *gulmas* (culms of grasses with annular knots from which leaves spring—स्तम्बो गुल्मो तृणादीनामकाण्डद्रुमगुच्छयोः ). It is worthy of note that, in the enumeration of the grasses, the bamboo is considered as a sort of giant grass ( तृणध्वजः ). The reeds (नलादयः) are also placed among the grasses (नलादयस्तृणं गर्भशाकप्रमुखमपि । प्रमुखशब्दात् नीवाराद्याः).

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(6) Finally, the *Palmaceae* (including the cocoanut, date, areca, and other palms) are classed as Tree-grasses, probably because, like the grasses they are endogens characterised by spikes and parallel veins (तृणद्रुमः).

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“ I (Seal) may add that *Amara* places parasitical plants among the *Latās* (वन्दा, वृक्षादनी, वृक्षरुहा, etc.). They climb trees and feed upon them (Cascuta). These are to be distinguished from climbing plants, like the *Guḍuchi* (Tinospora cordifolia), which have separate roots of their own. They are also to be distinguished from the adventitious roots descending from the branches of trees, like the *Ficus religiosa*, which are usually termed *Abarohas* (अवरोहाः ).

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The Hindu Materia Medica mentions *Ākāśavallī*, literally sky-creeper, a name which seems to have been originally intended for some orchids; also *Plava* (lit. floating), weeds that float in stagnant ponds, and *Śaivāla*, mosses and lichens (?) (*e.g.*, दूर्व्वाकसेरुपलशैवालं, etc., *Chakrapāṇi-samgraha*, also *Bhāba Prakāśa*). These are not classified, but like the mushrooms must come under the *Pākanishṭha aushadhis*—

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‘Aushadhis that die after maturing, without bringing forth flowers or fruits,’ i.e. cryptogams.

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We have so far discussed the classification of plants according to their stature and some salient *vital features* which represents just the first step in the scientific classification. In the next step the individual plants are sought to be arranged into certain well-defined groups, genera or classes according to resemblances in their essential characteristics. The individual plants coming under such a group, genus or class, in their turn are differentiated by certain specific features, primarily, the colours of their flowers. Thus:

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1. The genus *Kovidāra* (Bauhinia) includes the *Śwetapushpa Kovidāra* (flowers white), the *Pītapushpa Kovidāra* (flowers yellow—B. tomentosa) and the *Raktapushpa Kovidāra* (B. purpurea) which resemble in almost all their essential characteristics but differ in the colours of the flowers. The *Śwetapushpa Kovidāra* is again differentiated into *Śwetakovidāra nirgandha* (B. acuminata), and *Śwetakovidāra surabhikusuma* (B. variegata) according as the flowers are not scented or scented.

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2. Similarly the genus *Balā* (Sida) includes 4 species (बला चतुष्टयम्)—*Balā* (Sida cordifolia), *Atibalā* (S. rhombifolia), *Mahābalā* (S. rhomboidea) and *Nāgabalā* (S. spinosa).

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3. The genus *Jhinṭi* (Barleria) includes 4 species (झिण्टिचतुष्टयम्)—*Saireyaka* (flowers white—B. longiflora or B. cristata var. dichotoma), *Dāsee* (flowers blue—B. cristata, or B. strigosa), *Kurantaka* (flowers yellow—B. prionitis), *Kuravaka* (flowers purple—B. ciliata).

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4. The genus *Śigru* (Moringa), includes 3 species (शिगुत्रयम्)—*Śveta-śigru* (flowers white—Moringa pterygosperma). *Rakta-* or *Madhu-śigru* (flowers red) and *Śovāñjana* (flowers blue).

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5. The genus *Śarapuṅkhā* (Tephrosia) includes 3 species (शरपुङ्खात्रयम्)—*Rakta-śarapuṅkhā* (flowers red—T. purpurea), *Sita-śarapuṅkhā* (flowers white—T. villosa) and *Kaṇṭapuṅkhā* (T. spinosa).

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6. The genus *Śaṅkhapuṣpī* (Canscora) includes 3 species—*Śuklapuṣpī* (C. decussata), *Raktapuṣpī* (C. diffusa) and *Nīlapuṣpī* (?).

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7. The genus *Bhṛṅgarāja* (Eclipta) includes 3 species (श्वेतपीतनीलपुष्पभेदात् त्रयो भृङ्गराजाः सन्ति) *Śveta* (flowers white—E alba), *Pīta* (flowers yellow (?)) and *Nīla* (flowers blue (?)).

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8. The genus *Pāṭalā* (Stereospermum) includes *Tāmra-puṣpa Pāṭalā* (S. suaveolens), *Pīta-puṣpa Pāṭalā* (B. chelonoides) and *Sita Pāṭalā* (Schrebera swietenioides).

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9. The genus *Chandana* includes *Śveta-chandana* (Santalum album—गन्धराजं, सर्पावासं, मलयजम्), *Rakta-chandana* (Pterocarpus santalinus—प्रबालफलम्, रक्तसारम्), Kuchandana (Adenanthera pavonia—रक्तकाष्ठम्, पट्ट रञ्जनम्), Kāliyaka (? पीतकाष्ठम्, नारायणप्रियम्), Barbarika (? श्वेतम् निर्गन्धम्) and Harichandana (महागन्धं, लोहितम् ?).

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10. The genus Kośātakī (Luffa) includes Kośātakī (L. echinata), Kshudraphalā (L. bindaal), Brihatphalā (L. graveolens), Rājak ośātakī (L. amara) and Dhārākośātakī (L. acutangula), etc., etc.

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B. Classification of Plants based on Medicinal Properties.—*Charaka*¹ classifies plants primarily into two divisions—Purgatives ( विरेचन: ) and the Astringents ( कषाय: ). And the Purgatives are six hundred and the Astringents are five hundred in number. The number of pre-eminently astringent groups are fifty which might again be sub-grouped under ten heads or *Vargas*, thus:

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¹ Charaka Saṃhitā, Sūtrasthāna, IV, pp. 25-29 (Bengali Edition). Cf. also Eng. Trans., Fasc. II, Lesson IV, pp 27-47

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1. First Varga:

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(1) *Jīvanīya* (Prolonging life)—*e.g.*, *Jīvaka* (Celtis orientalis), *Mudgaparṇī* (Phaseolus radiatus), *Māshaparṇa* (Teramnus debilis), *Jīvantī* (Dendrobium sp.), rest not identified. 6.

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(2) *Vrimghaṇīya* (Nutritive and promoting corpulency)—*e.g.*, *Rājakshāraka* (Asclepias rosea), *Balā* (Sida cordifolia), *Bharadwājī* (Hibiscus vitifolius), etc. 8.

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(3) *Lekhanīya* (Thinning the tissues or reducing corpulency)—*e.g.*, *Musta* (Cyperus rotandus), *Kushṭha* (Aplotaxis auriculata) *Haridrā* (Curcuma longa), *Dāruharidrā* (Berberis asiatica), etc. 9.

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(4) *Bhedanīya* (Promoting excretion)—*e.g.*, *Arka* (Asclepias gigantia), *Chitrā* (Rubia mañjiṣṭhā), *Chitraka* (Plumbago zeylanica), *Svarṇakṣīriṇī* (Polanisia felina). 10.

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(5) *Sandhānīya* (Promoting the union of fractured parts)—*e.g.*, *Liquorice*, *Madhuparṇī* (Tinospora cordifolia), *Lodhra* (Symplocos racemosa), *Priyaṅgu* (Aglaia Roxburghiana), *Katphala* (Myrica sapida), etc 11.

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(6) *Dīpanīya* (Promoting appetite and digestion)—*e.g.*, *Pippalī* (Piper longum), *Chavya* (Piper chava), *Śṛṅgavera* (dry ginger), *Maricha* (Piper nigrum), *Ajāmodā* (Apium involucrata), *Bhallātakī* (Semecarpus anacardium), etc. 12.

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2. Second Varga:

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(1) *Valya* (Increasing strength)—*Rishavī* (Mucana pruriens), *Atirasa* (Asparagus racemosus), *Payasya* (Convolvulus paniculatus), *Aśwagandhā* (Physalis flexuosa), *Sthirā* (Desmodium gangeticum), *Rohiṇī* (Picrorrhiza kurroa). 13.

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(2) *Varṇya* (Improving the complexion)—*Chandana* (Pterocarpus santalinus), *Tuṅga* (Calophyllum inophyllum), *Mañjiṣṭhā* (Rubia cordifolia), *Sarivā* (Hemidesmus indicus), etc. 14.

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(3) *Kaṇṭhya* (Improving voice and curing hoarseness)—*Ikṣumūla* (Saccharum officinarum), *Drākṣā* (Uvōē passāē), *Vidārī* (Convolvulus paniculatus), *Haṃsapadī* (Hydrocotyle asiatica), etc. 15.

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(4) *Hridya* (Promoting cheerfulness or relish)—*Āmra* (mango), *Āmrātaka* (Spondius mangifera), *Nikucha* (Artocarpus lakucha), *Mātuluṅga* (Citrus medica), etc. 16.

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3. Third Varga:

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(1) *Kaphaghna* (Removing phlegm that causes a sensation of satiety)—*Viḍaṅga* (Embelica glandulifera), *Murvā* (Sauseviera zeylanica), *Guḍuchī* (Tinospora cordifolia), *Paṭóla*, etc. 17.

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(2) *Arśaghna* (Curing piles)—*Kuṭaja* (Holarhena antidysenterica), *Vilva* (Aegle marmelos), *Ativisha* (Aconitum heterophyllum), *Abhayā* (Terminalia chebula), etc. 18.

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(3) *Kuṣṭhaghna* (Curing skin-diseases)—*Khadira* (Acacia catechu), *Saptaparṇa* (Echites scholaris), *Āragvadha* (Cassia fistula), *Karavīra* (Nerium odorum), etc. 19.

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(4) *Kaṇḍughna* (Curing prurites)—*Chandana* (Red sandal), *Nalada* (Nardostachys jatamansi), *Naktamāla* (Galedupa indica), *Nimva* (Melia azadirachta), etc. 20.

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(5) *Krimighna* (Anthelmentic or Vermifuge)—*Akhira* (Moringa pterygosperma), *Kevuka* (Costus speciosus), *Nirguṇṭhī* (Vitex nirgundo), *Kinihī* (Achyranthes aspera), etc. 21.

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(6) *Vishaghna* (Neutralising poison)—*Suvahā* (Vanda Roxburghii), *Paliṇḍī* (Ichnocarpus frutescens), *Kataka* (Strychnos potatorum), *Śirīsha* (Mimosa sirisa), etc. 22.

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4. Fourth Varga:

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(1) *Stanyajanana* (Galactiphorous)—*Vīraṇa* (Andropogon muricatum), *Śāli* (paddy), *Shashṭika* (paddy), *Darbha* (Saccharum cylindricum), *Kuśa* (Poa cynosuroides), etc. 23.

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(2) *Stanyaśodhana* (Improving the quality of milk)—*Pāṭhā* (Stephania hernandifolia), *Suradāru* (Cedrus deodara), *Musta* (Cyperus rotandus), *Kirātatikta* (Agathotes chirayata), etc. 24.

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(3) *Śukrajanana* (Increasing the secretion of semen)—*Jīvaka* (Celtis orientalis), *Vriddharuha* (Asparagus racemosus), *Jaṭila* (Phyllanthus niruri), *Kulinga* (Rhus acuminata), etc. 25.

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(4) *Śukraśodhana* (Purifying the semen)—*Kushṭha* (Saussurea auriculata), *Kadamba* (Nauclea cadamba), *Ikshu* (Sugarcane), *Kāṇdekshu* (Ruellia longifolia), *Vāsuka* (Sesbania grandiflora), etc. 26.

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5. Fifth Varga:

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(1) *Snehopaga* (Emollients)—*Mridvīkā* (Raisin), *Vidārī* (Convolvulus paniculata), *Jīvantī* (Coelogyne ovalis), *Śālaparṇī* (Hedysarum gangeticum), etc. 27.

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(2) *Svedopaga* (Diaphoretics)—*Śobhañjana* (Moringa pterygosperma), *Ekāraṇda* (Ricinus communis), *Vrischira* (Boerhavia diffusa var. white), *Punarnavā* (red variety), etc. 28.

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(3) *Vamanopaga* (Emetic)—*Kovidāra* (Bauhinia variegata), *Karvudāra* (B. acuminata), *Nīpa* (Nuclea), Vidula (Calamus fasciculatus), Vimbī (Coccinea indica), Śaṇapuṣpī (Crotalaria verrucosa), etc. 29.

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(4) Virechanopaga (Purgative)—Kāchmārya (Gmelina arborea), Parushaka (Grewia asiatica), Abhayā (Terminalia chebula), Pīlu (Salvadora indica), etc. 30.

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(5) Asthāpanopaga (Enemata)—Trivrit (Convolvulus turpethum), Pippalī (Piper longum), Mustard, Vacha (Acorus calamus), Madanaphala (Randia dumetorum), etc. 31.

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(6) Anuvāsanopaga (Oily enemata)—Rasnā (Vanda Roxburghii), Śālapushpa (Pucedanum sowa), Aśwadaṃṣṭrā (Tribulus terrestris), Agnimantha (Premna spinosa), etc. 32.

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(7) Śirovirechanopaga (Errhines)—Jyotiṣmatī (Cardospermum halicacabum), Kṣavaka (Myriogyne lanuginosus), Śveta (Clitorea ternata) white and red variety, etc. 33.

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6. Sixth Varga:

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(1) Chhardinigrahaṇa (Relieving vomiting)—Jambu (Eugenia jambolana), Āmra (mango), Mātuluṅga (Citrus medica), Amla-vadara (a variety of Zizyphus), etc. 34.

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(2) Triṣṇānigrahaṇa (Relieving thirst)—Nāgara (Cyperus partenuis), Dhānwa-yavāsaka (Hedysarum alhagi), Parppaṭaka (Oldenlandia biflora), Patola (Trichosanthes dioica), etc. 35.

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(3) Hic̄cā-nigrahaṇa (Relieving hiccup)—

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Saṭhi (Circuma zerumbet), Kaṇṭakārika (Solanum jacquinii), Vrihatī (Solanum indicum), Vriksha-ruha (orchid), etc. 36.

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7. Seventh Varga:

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(1) Purīsha-saṃgrahaṇīya (Rendering the fæces consistent)—Kātwanga (Colosanthes indica), Mocharasa (Bombax malabaricum), Samānaga (Mimosa pudica), Dhātakī pushpa (Grislea tomentosa), etc. 37.

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(2) Purīsha-virajanīya (Altering the colour of the fæces)—Śallakī (Boswellia serrata), Śrīveshtaka (Pinus longifolia), Payasyā (Batatas paniculatus), Utpala (Nymphaea stellata), etc. 38.

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(3) Mūtra-saṃgrahaṇīya (Reducing secretion of the urine)—Plaksha (Ficus infectoria), Kapitāna (Spondias mangifera), Aśwattha (Ficus religiosa), Bhallātaka (Semecarpus anacardium), etc. 39.

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(4) Mūtra-virechanīya (Promoting secretion of urine)—Vrikshādanī (Cascuta), Aśwadaṃgshtrā (Tribulus terrestris), Vaśira (Cleome viscosa), Pāshāṇabheda (Bryophyllum calycinum), etc. 40.

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(5) Mūtra-virajanīya (Altering the colour of the urine)—Padma (Nelumbium speciosum), Utpala (Nymphaea stellata, blue), Nalina (Nymphaea, white), Kumuda (Nymphaea, red), Saugandhika (Nymphaea, lotus), Puṇḍarīka (Nelumbium sp.), *Śatapatra* (Nelumbium sp), etc. 41.

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8. Eighth Varga:

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(1) *Kāsahara* (Curing cough)—*Durālabhā* (Hedysarum alhagi), *Śringī* (Rhus acuminata), *Drākshā*, *Abhayā*, *Āmalakī*, *Pippalī*, *Kantakārika*, etc. 42.

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(2) *Śwāsahara* (Curing difficult breathing or Asthma)—*Sathi* (Circuma zerumbet), Cardamoms, *Amlavetasa* (Rumex vesicarius). *Hingu* (Ferula assafœtida), *Aguru* (Aquilaria agallocha), *Surasā* (Oseimum sanctum), *Chandā* (Andropogon acicularis), etc. 43.

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Cites (7)

Suśrutasaṃhitā — Suśruta & Nāgārjuna (siddha/alchemist), Sanskrit
Carakasaṃhitā — Agniveśa (Āyurveda) & Caraka, Sanskrit
Mānava Dharmaśāstra — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit
Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Bhāgavatapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Bhāvaprakāśa — Bhāvamiśra 1550, Sanskrit
Padārthadharmasaṅgraha — Praśastapāda, Sanskrit