Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c16.302

c16.302

Most of these terms of Medhātithi Gautama were later incorporated into the Nyāya-Sūtra of Gautama (Akshapāda ?) and its commentaries which deal with *Vāda* or Discussion as one of its five main subjects. The Nyāya-Sūtra treats of sixteen Categories which comprise all the topics of *Vāda-mārga* (course of debate) as enumerated in the Charaka-Saṁhitā. Only it arranges these topics in a more systematic and scientific manner. It arranges them under stages marked out in the development of a debate. Thus the first stage of a debate, its starting-point or basis, is the thesis to be proved, which is brought under the two Categories, (1) *Pramāṇa*, means of knowledge, and (2) *Prameya*, implying objects of knowledge. These two Categories constitute the basis of Debate. After this, the Debate opens and enters upon its third stage called *Saṁśaya*. The disputant in pursuit of his *prayojana* (purpose) first tries to answer the doubt of his opponent by citing a *dṛishṭānta* or a parallel case which is not so open to doubt. Then the next stage in the Debate is reached when the case, free of doubt, is shown to rest on *siddhāntas* (conclusions or tenets) accepted by both parties. The validity of the case is then further proved by analysing it into its five constituent parts called *avayava*. Thus another stage, that of *nirṇaya* (certainty), is reached when the disputant has successfully carried on the *tarka* (confutation) against all contrary arguments. But the Debate may take a different turn, in case the respondent, not satisfied with the process of argument, presents an antithesis. This will lead to another stage of the Debate, that of *Vāda* proper, which may degenerate into *Jalpa* or *Vitaṇḍā* and even to the use of shady casuistry in the forms of *hetvābhāsa* (fallacious reasons), *chhala*, *jāti* (analogues, far-fetched analogies). The exposure of these falsehoods will bring about his defeat (nigraha) and terminate the debate.