Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c16.82

c16.82

**Need of Discussion in Learning.** The Nyāya Sūtras also indicate their own appropriate pedagogic methods. The knowledge that is derived from the four aforesaid sources of Observation, Inference, Comparison, and Trustworthy Testimony is further put to the test of objective standards in the shape of discussion of various forms such as (1) *Vāda*, i.e. ‘Argumentation, consisting of objections and answers, both disputants, however, caring only for truth.’ (2) *Jalpa*, ‘Sophistry or attacking what has been established, by any means.’ (3) *Vitaṇḍā*, ‘Cavilling.’ The importance of Discussion to the investigation of truth led to a definition of the errors to be avoided. Thus we find an elaborate study of the fallacies of reasoning, such as *Hetvābhāsaḥ* and *Chhalam* ‘quibbles’.