Copper in Ancient India c12.s1.1

c12.s1.1

We would now proceed to identify the ores of copper which were used in India for smelting purposes. The principal ores mentioned in alchemical literature from which copper was extracted are *Mākshika* and *Vimala* meaning pyrites and copper glance respectively. So far as the former is concerned, two varieties of pyrites were known in India as early as the third century B.C. as Sushruta mentions two varieties of the mineral, golden and silvery. The one was originally known by the word *tāpya* as it was obtained near the Indian river Tāpi. Later on the one pyrites were designated by the word *mākshika* which was divided into two classes *hema-mākshika* (golden pyrites) and *tāramākshika (silvery pyrites), according to their respective colours evidently meaning copper and iron pyrites respectively, as copper pyrites is much more yellow than iron pyrites. Recipes are given in many alchemical works such as Rasaratnākar, Rasārnava and Rasaratna-samuchchaya for the extraction of copper from golden pyrites. But as regards their chemical composition a good deal of confusion appears to have existed even in the sixteenth century, as we find in Bhāvaprakāsh that "golden pyrites contain a little gold and the silvery pyrites a little silver."¹ It is very likely that the colours have misled many to the supposition that the two varieties of pyrites actually contained gold and silver. Mākshika is described to have been obtained in the river Tāpi and also in the land of the Kirāts, the Chinese and the Yavanas. Golden pyrites were obtained in Kanauja.