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A History of Agriculture in India v1.c49: Index

A History of Agriculture in India v1.c49

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Index

v1.c49.1.1

ABAYEV, V. Indo-European languages, 280 Aborigines, and the caste system, 308 *see also* Tribes Abyssinia diffusion of wheat, 103 hearth of agriculture, 269 origin of *Pennisetum*, 319 Acheulian Culture, 70, 78 Madhya Pradesh, 83 Maharashtra, 70 South India, 71 tools, 62 Adamgarh, M. P. cave drawings, 83 Mesolithic finds, 78 Adichanallur, Tamil Nadu pottery finds, 306 rice-grains finds, 306 Afghanistan, cultivated plants, 269 Africa centre of pearl-millet, 318, 319 fossil man, 55; sites (map) 52 hominid evolution, 53 *Homo erectus*, 64, 65 *Homo habilis*, 54-55 links with Indian fauna, 46 origin of sesame, 166 Aghatapura, *see* Ahar-Banasian culture Agricultural implements Buddhist period, 338 Gupta Age, 418 Kushan period, 401-2 later-Vedic, 317 Mauryan period, 361 Sanchi, 402 Satavahanas, 401 Agricultural practices and techniques Chalcolithic cultures, 113 Egypt, 113-14 *Jataka* accounts, 361 later-Vedic, 317-19 Agriculture and the Aryans, 315 beginnings of, 112 Buddhist period Greek account, 340-1 sources of information, 340 diffusion of, 268-69 discovery of, 101-2 and domestication of animals, 183 earliest, 266 Gupta Age, 416 Harappan, 156-82 hearths of 268-69 Kanauj empire, 428; Hiuen Tsang, 423-24 Neolithic, 101-4 Kashmir, 219-20 ninth century (India), 478 Sanskrit equivalent, 280 Satavahanas, 381, 391 South Indian king loms, 406 Vedic Age, 297-300 Agriculturists, later-Vedic, 308 Ahar-Banasian culture, 150-51 absence of stone tools, 151 jowar, 245 Ahichchhatra, U. P.

v1.c49.1.2

burnt bricks, 314 painted grey pottery, 305 Ajmer forests, 30 Alampirpur, Harappan site, 148 ALBERUNI observations on India, 473-76 observations on Indo-Gangetic alluvium 7 Ali Kosh, Iran Neolithic site, 101 cereal harvesting, 102 Alkaline soils, 20 Alluvium Indo-Gangetic, 12-14 *see also* Holocene ALLCHIN, R. and ALLCHIN, B.

v1.c49.1.3

burial of dogs, 219 hoof impressions, 235 Indus crops, 156-57 introduction of iron, 307 South India Neolithic culture, 233 Almonds oldest centre, 269 native home, 112 Alpaca, domestication, 183 Alpine zone, 27, 28 Alps, formation, 4 *Amarakosha* agricultural implements, 418 classification of soils, 416 leather, 426 vegetables, 418 America (pre-Columbian) absence of draught animals, 183 alpaca, domestication, 183 camels original home, 192 migration, 282 centres of origin of cultivated plants, 269 horse evolution, 282 migration, 282 llama,, domestication, 183 ploughless agriculture, 183 American Indians, 183 Amla (*Emblica officinalis*), 246 Amritsar, Harappan finds, 142 Andaman Islands mangrove forests, 41, 42 Onge tribes, 96 Andhra Chain-tanks, 459 cotton, 391 *see also* Satavahanas Andhra-Karnataka Neolithic cultures, 233-36 Anicuts, 457-58 Animal bones, later-Vedic, 316 Animal husbandry Aryan, 289 ass, 194 development, 183 Mauryan age, 365-78 Sintashta, USSR, 281 Animal products, 480 Animal sacrifice, 338 Animal toys, 184, 211 Animals cave drawings, 83-95 deification, 84 domestication, 101, 104-5, 107, 118, 183 horse, 182, 283 Neolithic age, 101 as food, 183 Harappa, 183-212 as power, 183 remains from Payampalli, 237 representations in pre-Harappan culture, 117 Sanskrit names of principal domesticated animals, 511 sculptures, 445-46 in transport, 433-34 in warfare, 433-34 Antelopes, 46 Anthropoid apes, fossils, 46-48 Apples, centre of origin, 269 *Apupa* cake, later-Vedic, 314 Arabs, cultivated plants, 113 Arboriculture, *see* Tree-planting *Aranyakas*, 303 Arecanut garden, 445 Argali sheep, 120 *Arthashastra* as source of information, 340 breeding bulls, 366 crops, 362 duties of graziers, 371-72 feed and fodder, 372 irrigation, 363 milk and milling, 372 pastures, 371 payment to workers, 357-58 quality of elephants, 374 social security, 358 villages, 352-54 Aridity and Harappan agriculture, 181 Artisans, Aryan, 294 Arts and crafts, Buddhist period, 346 ARYABHATA, 413 Aryan land (Saptsindhavah), 290 Aryans archaeological remains, 280, 291-92 Bronze Age, 278-89 camels unknown, 193 cultural and economic life, 308-16 destruction of Indus Valley civilization, 288-89 domestic animals, 316-17 dress, 293 ethnology, 292 Harappan civilization, 181-82 home of, 278 and horses, 278-289 and indigenous people, 290 Iron Age, 316 invasion of India, 288-89 later-Vedic, 301 massacre of Harappans, 181 and the Mittanis, 291 rapid transport, 288 society, 291 territory, 290 Asia, migration of camels to, 192 ASOKA and arboriculture, 379-84 and Bodhi tree, 379 and horticulture, 379-84 Asoka tree (*Saraca asoka*), 324 in sculpture, 398 Ass, 193-94 and animal husbandry, 194 Harappa, 183 Mauryan period, 373 pre-Harappan life, 129 progenitor of the mule, 194 Assam forests, 41 Neolithic sites, 262-63 products, 429 and Tethys Ocean, 1, 2 Assam Wedge, 6 Astrology, origin, 113 *Atharva Veda*, 301 Hymn to Earth, 303 Atranji Khera, U.

v1.c49.1.4

P. Harappan site, 163 Painted Grey Pottery, 305 rice finds, 271 Auroch, 185 Australopithecines, 53-54 AVEBURY, Lod, 67 *Avesta*, and society, 279 Axes ground-stone, 237 iron (socketed), 305 Neolithic, 221

v1.c49.2

Bactrian camels, 192 as beast of burden, 193 Central Asia, 193 BAINI PRASAD domestication of the buffalo, 190 Harappan dog, 8

v1.c49.3

*Bajra* (*Pennisetum typhoides*) archaeological sites in India, 321 earliest record, 319 introduction in India, 318-19 Baking, Neolithic, 109 Baluchistan earliest horse remains, 287 pre-Harappan climate, 115 pre-Harappan culture, 115-29 BANABHATA, 428 Bananas evolution, 287 original home, 266 Banasian culture, *see* Ahar-Banasian culture BANERJEE, N. R., Early Iron Age, 307 BANERJEE, R. D., excavations at Mohenjo-daro, 130

v1.c49.4

Banyan tree (*Ficus indica*), 327, 328 Greek account, 360 and the Hindus, 327 Bara culture, 139 Barley ancestors of, 101 and Aryans, 299 earliest finds, 103 Harappan civilization, 162 introduction in India, 162 Neolithic cultures, 104 preparations, later-Vedic, 314 *sura* drink, 293 wild barley, 102 Barley sowing, 318 Barwal sheep, 121 Basmati rice, Ahar-Banasian, 151 Basketry development, 107 later-Vedic, 308 Beads, Chalcolithic culture, 130 Beans, origin, 269 Beasts of burden ass, 193-94 camels, 193 Beef, Vedic-Age, 293-315 Bellary cave drawings, 83 Neolithic culture, 233 Belt Cave, Caspian Sea, 107 BERNAL, J. D. bullock-cart, 158 momentous inventions, 109 Ber (*Ziziphus nummularia*), 216

v1.c49.5

Beverages centres of origin, 504 Bhagwanpura, Haryana, excavations, 142-47 Bhang, and Aryans, 293 BHARAT, and India, 296 Bharatas (Aryan tribe), 290 Bhahut Stupa representation of dresses, 340 representation of fruit plants, 381-83 representation of trees, 328 Bheraghat, M. P., stone tools, 69 Bhimbetaka, M. P. bone engravings, 95 cave drawings, 83, 95-96 wild bees, 99 Bhura, U. P., Harappan site, 147-48 Bihar Neolithic sites, 263, 64 soils, 14 Birds domestication, 212-15 as live meat, 214 Black cotton soil, 14, 430-32 Bodhi-tree, 326 and Asoka, 379 sapling to Sri Lanka, 327 Bolivia cultivated plants, 269 domestication of animals, 183 Bone tools, 237 BOPP, F., and Indo-European languages, 278 Borobudur, Java, 384 Boulder Conglomerate, 68 BOULE, M., Neolithic revolution, 274 Bows and arrows, Mesolithic, 80 Brahmagiri, Karnataka excavations, 307 Neolithic settlements, 233 Brahmanas, 301-3 Brahmins and agriculture, 391 BRAIDWOOD, R. J., Bronze Age achievements, 114 Brassica, see Rape Brazil, cultivated plants, 269 Brewing, Neolithic, 109 Bricks Deccan, 391 later-Vedic, 314 sun-dried, 131 Brick-wells, 401 Bronze Age, 66, 111 achievements, 114 Aryans, 278-89 gram (chickpea), 166 wheat, 111 Bronze sword and the Aryans, 289 Buddhism sacred trees, 324-32 and vegetation, 325 Buddhist Period, 323-39 daily life, 345 Greek account, 346 villages, 335-37 Buffaloes, 187-91 ancient economy, 190 and Aryans, 296 breeds, 191 domestication, 187-91 India, 190 Harappa, 183, 184 Mauryan age, 366 spread of, 190 wild, 188 Buildings, Aryan, 294 Bullock-carts Harappa, 157-58 Lothal, 158 solid wheels, 157 Bullocks Hariana breed, 401 and plough, Vedic Age, 297 Bulls Mauryan age, 366-67 in Mohenjo-daro seals, 184 pre-Harappan representations, 117, 118 Burials Burzahom, 217 Deccan, 307 Neandarthal man, 75 Nevasa site, 239 Burma, Anyathinian culture, 71 Burzahom, Kashmir, Neolithic relic culture, 216-31 Bus Madeh, Iran, Neolithic sites, 101

v1.c49.6

Cachar Hills, Neolithic sites, 262-63 Cambrian Period and India, 1 Camels, 192 93 domestication, 193 Harappa, 183 migration to Asia, 192, 282 origin, 192 Cane, 314 Carbon-14 dating, *see* Radiocarbon dating Cardamoms, oldest centre, 269 Cashew, original home, 289 Caspian Sea, Belt Cave, 101 Castor discovery, 245 in India, 246 Caste system, 308 Cats, 211 Cattle, 107 ancestors of, 101 and *Avesta*, 280 breeds of, later-Vedic, 326-27 domestication, 107 by Aryans, 280 dual purpose breed, 316-17 Hariana breed, 316 Kalibangan, 158 Kushan period, 401 management by horses, 289 Mewati breed, 316 pre-Harappan representation, 117 Cave drawings and paintings classification, 83 Mesolithic, 78 India, 82 radiocarbon dating, 95 Celts, *see* Polished stone-axes Cenozoic Era, 44 Central Asia, Bactrian camel, 193 Central Himalayas, *see* Great Himalayas Central India desiduous forests, 39 forest settlements, 430-33 vegetation, 39 Cereals centres of origin, 501, 503, 504 development from grasses, 103-4 Kanauj empire, 427 later-Vedic, 317-19 Neolithic, 101, 237 primitive, 111 Paiyampalli, Tamil Nadu, 237 Chalcolithic cultures Egypt, 113-14 Harappan, India, 139-55 Pakistan, 130-38 Mesopotamia, 111-13

v1.c49.7

Chalcolithic Revolution, 111 Chalcolithic sites Deccan, 238-61 West Bengal, 264-65 Chalukyas, 436-37 Champak tree (*Michelia champata*) in sculpture, 398 Chandigarh Bara and Harappan culture, 140 cemetery, 140 saddle-quern, 163 settlements, 163 township, 140 Museum of Evolution of Life, 231 Chanhu-daro barley and wheat, 163 discovery of rape seed, 179 excavations, 130 toy carts, 157 Chapaties, Ahar-Banasian culture, 150-51 Chariots Aryan, 288 horse-drawn, 283 horses, 288 racing, 288 Aryan sport, 294 Sintashta, USSR, 281 Cheras, 404 Cherries, native home, 112 Chick-pea, *see* Gram CHILDE, Gordon, 107 Chalcolithic Revolution, 111 wheeled vehicles, 283 Chillies, origin, 269 China centre of cultivated plants, 269 Chou-kou-tien Cave, 71 influence on Neolithic cultures of India, 263 introduction of fowl, 214 Peking man, 64 rice find, 271 trade with India, 443 Chirand, Bihar, Neolithic finds, 263 Chir-pine forests, 26 Cholas, 404 irrigation system, 457-61 dams, 405 trade with Rome, 405 Chopper-type pebble tools, 70, 71 CHOPRA, S. R. K., 47, 48

v1.c49.8

Chou-kou-tien Cave, China, 64, 71 evidence of fire, 64 Peking man, 64 Citadels, *see* Fortresses and citadels Citrus and Arabs, 113 centre of origin, 269 Cities, *see* Towns City-planning, *see* Town-planning Climate Harappa, 183 Mesolithic period, 78-79 Tertiary period, 45 Cloth, *see* Textiles Clothing and dress Alberuni's account, 474 Aryans Vedic, 293 later-Vedic, 314 Greek account, 341-42 Neanderthal man, 74 COCKBURN, discovery of cave-shelters, 82 Cocoa, original home, 269 Coconut (*Cocos nucifera*), 391-92 Harappan culture, 180 introduction in India, 392 oldest centre, 269 region, 24 COEURDOX, and language of the Aryans, 278 Coffee, home of, 269 Coins Indo-Greek, 349 Magadhan empire, 348-51 Copper imported by Sumerians, 111 ornaments, 239 pre-Harappan Baluchistan, 115 smelting, 111 Copper Age culture, Ahar-Banasian, 151 Copper tools and implements Chalcolithic age, 138 Gandhara grave culture, 292 Corn grinding, Harappa, 163 growing, Neolithic, 117 Cottage industries, Kanauj empire, 426 Cotton, 179-80 and Arabs, 113 centre of origin, 269 Greek account, 360 Harappan agriculture, 179-80 not mentioned in Vedas, 300 varieties, Harappan, 179-80 Cotton cloth and garments, Harappan, 137, 179 Cowdung as manure, 317 Cow-killing later-Vedic, 315 Mauryan age, 366 Cows and Aryan wars, 290 as *daskhina*, 295 favourite of Harappans, 185 Mauryan age, 365-66 and milk, 296 pre-Harappan representation, 117 punishment for stealing, 371 remains, Sintishta, USSR, 281 symbol of wealth, 291 Cretaceous Period, 1-4 Crete, wheeled vehicles, 283 Cro-Magnon Man, 76 Crop growing, Indus Valley, 158 Crop protection, Harappan, 158-59 Crop sharing, 357 Crops growing and harvesting Mauryan age, 362 Vedic period, 299 Indus Valley, 156-57 later-Vedic, 317-19 rotation of, 317 Cultigens, origin, 266 Cultivated plants centres of origin, 268, 501-5 history, 103 Cultivation and Jainism, 332 Mauryan empire, 348, 356-57 Cyclones, 23

v1.c49.9

Daimabad, Chalcolithic site, 259 Dairy products, later-Vedic, 315; *see also* Milk Dams Cholas, 405 pre-Harappan, 115 Dashrajan battle, 290 De TERRA, H. discovery of Burzahom, 216 pebble tools, 68 Deccan deciduous forests, 39 Iron Age, 306–7 Deccan Trap, 2, 3 formation, 4 map, 5 soils, 8, 14–15 Decimal system, 413 Deer-hunting, Mesolithic drawing, 84 Deforestation and Harappa, 181 Deities, Aryan, 291 Delhi, Iron Pillar, 417 Desert soils, 20 Deciduous forests, 30–40 Date-palms and Arabs, 113 Harappan agriculture, 180 origin, 113 Dhaula Dhar Range, glaciers, 61 Diluvium, 56 Dishakaka birds in terracotta, 180 Dockyard, Lothal, 152 Dogs domestication, 80–82 Harappa, 183 remains, 281 ritual burial, 219 Dolmens, South India, 306 Domestic animals Harappa, 156, 183–212 later-Vedic, 316–17 and man, 183 representations, 117 Sanskrit names of, 511 source of food, 107 Domestic fowl, 212–14 Domestication of birds, Harappa, 212 Drains and drainage Harappa, 132 Mohenjo-daro, 132 Rupar, 132 Draught animals, absence in America, 183 Dress, *see* Clothing and dress Drinking-water, Vedic age, 298 Drinks, intoxicating Kanauj empire, 428 Vedic age, 293 Drishadvati river, 290 in Harappan times, 142 Dromedary, *see* Bactrian camel

v1.c49.10

Drought and famine, *see* Famine and drought *Dryopithecus africanus*, 50 *Dryopithecus punjabicus*, 49 DUBOIS, and Java Man, 63 Ducks, Mohenjo-daro, 212 Dumba sheep, 121 Dwelling pits Burzahom, 216–17 Payampalli, 237

v1.c49.11

Eastern Himalayas, vegetation, 27–29 Eastern India Neolithic culture, 262–77 origin of rice, 273 Egypt, Chalcolithic culture, 113–14 Einkorn, 103 Elephants, 191–92 capture, 377 decline, 192 later-Vedic period, 317 Mauryan empire, 374 in warfare, 374 ELLERTON, and wheat species, 162 Emmer, 103 Eocene, and the Himalayas, 4 Epics, 303 Euphrates Valley and Chalcolithic culture, 111–13 Evergreen rain forests, 40–41

v1.c49.12

FA-HSIEN, 410, 412 Famine and drought, 23 Buddhist period, 337 Farming Aryans of Sintashta, USSR, 281 Buddhist period, 337 Calcolithic period, 113 *see also* Agricultural practices and techniques Farmers, Southeast Asia, 267–68 Fat, from sheep, 121 Fauna Pleistocene, 62–63 Siwalik period, 46 Tertiary period, 46 *see also* Animals Felt-making, 122 Ferozepur, Punjab, Harappan finds, 141 Fertile Crescent, 101–10 art of seeding, 268 diffusion of agriculture, 109 hearth of agriculture, 269 manufacture of stone blades, 130 Neolithic cultures 102 period of, 273 Festivals, Gupta Period, 414 Fibre plants centres of origin, 502, 503 Fig, native home, 112 Fire cult of, 279 human achievement, 64 Peking man, 64 Fishes and fishing, 211-12 later-Vedic period, 309 Flax, 107 Floods, Lothal, 152 Flora, see Vegetation Flower people, 73 Fodder and feed Arthashastra, 372 centres of origin, 503, 504 Food Kanauj empire, 427 Vedic period, 293 later-Vedic period, 314 Food crops, Harappan, 161-79 Food gatherers, Mesolithic, 78-82 Food habits Aharians, 151 Tribals of Madhya Pradesh, 97 Foodgrains cultivation, Harappa, 163 storage, Neolithic period, 107 Food plants and the Vedas, 301-2 Forage crops oldest centre, 269 origin, 112 Forced labour, 423 Forests clearing of Buddhist period, 323 Neolithic period, 221-22 depletion, 181 deciduous, 30-40 Central India, 39 KASHYAPA on, 489-90 Lothal, 152 settlements in, 430-32 soils, 19, 20 tropical evergreen, 40-41 tropical thorn, 29-30 Fortresses and citadels, Harappan destruction by Aryans, 289 early Iron Age, 307 Kalibangan, 148-49 Fossil finds anthropoid apes, 47-48 Hominids, 49-55 Homo erectus, 63-66 Homo sapiens sapiens, 75-76 Neanderthal man, 71-75 FRASER, William, Neolithic sites, 233 Fruit-plants Asokan Age, 381 in Bharhut sculptures, 381-83 Hiuen Tsang, 427 Fruits centres of origin, 269, 501-2, 504 Chalcolithic cultivation, 112-13 Harappan agriculture, 180 in Neolithic Deccan, 246-47 Funeral rites, Sintashta, USSR, 281 Furnaces, Harappan, 139 Furrowing, 113

v1.c49.13

Gabarbands, 115 Gandhara, 388 Grave culture, 291-92 Gandharis (Aryan tribe), 290 Ganga, Descent of, in sculpture, 439 Gangetic plains, deciduous forests, 30-39 Gardens Buddhist monasteries and temples, 398-401 Gupta age, 414 KASHYAPA, 488-89 kitchen-garden, Gupta age, 414 Lumbini grove, 325-26 GAUR, R. C., excavations, 305 Geography, beginnings of, 158 Ghaggar, see Sarasvati Ghatsila, cave drawings, 82 Ghee Mauryan age, 372-73 Vedic Aryan, 293, 314 Gigantopithecus, 47 Ginger Indian origin, 267 original home, 266

v1.c49.14

Glacial age, *see* Pleistocene Glaciation, and Peninsular India, 61 Glass manufacture, 308 Goats, 107 ancestors of, 101 and Aryans, 296 difference from sheep, 122–29 domestication, 120 in Baluchistan, 118 Harappa, 183, 184 Mauryan age, 366 pre-Harappan representation, 118–20 Godavari Valley late-Harappan sites, 259 Pleistocene fauna, 62 GODWIN-AUSTEN, 69 Gold as weight, 314 Indus Valley cities, 153 Lothal, 153 mines, 153 ornaments Aryans, 292 later-Vedic, 314 Gondwanaland, 1–3 disintegration, 44 and the Himalayas, 3 palaeographic map, 3 soils, 8 GORMAN, Chester, Hobinhian culture, 265, 266 Gourd, and the Aryans, 300 Gram (*Cicer arietinum*), 163–66 earliest known occurrence, 166 introduction in India, 166 Granaries and grain storage Harappa, 159–61 Lothal, 161 Navdatoli, 241 Grapes (*Vitis vinifera*) Chalcolithic age, 112 native home, 112 oldest centre, 269 in sculpture, 383 Graves and tombs Central Asian influence, 307 Gandhara grave culture, 291–92 Megalithic, 306 rock-cut, 307 Graziers, duties of, 371 Great Himalayas, 67

v1.c49.15

Greece introduction of fowls, 214 wheeled vehicles, 283 Greek account, Buddhist period, 340–46 Greeks in India, 387–88 coins, 349 Grinding slab, Neolithic, 102 *see also* Saddle-quern Gupta Age, 96, 410–19 agricultural implements, 418 crops, 418–19 iron technology, 417–18 rural economy, 415 Guavas, origin, 269 Gujarat camels, 193 Harappan sites, 1515–3 Gurdaspur, Punjab, 141

v1.c49.16

Hallikar cattle, 445–46 Hallur, Karnataka earliest record of *bajra*, 319 introduction of iron, 307 HAMMURABI, and horse, 284 Hand-axe complex Soan culture, 69 Madras, 70 Hand-axe finds Burzahom, 219 Madhya Pradesh, 69, 83 Maharashtra, 70 Sites (map), 72 Harappa Aryan invasion, 288–89 ass, 193, 194 camel remains, 193 city, 130–32 excavations, 130 fishing scenes from, 212 and Mesopotamia, 137 population increase, 180–81 Harappan agriculture, 156–82 cotton, 179–80 food crops, 161–79 barley, 162–62 gram, 163–66 peas, 166 rape, 168–79 wheat, 161–62 fruit, 180

v1.c49.17

Harappan civilization and culture, 137–55 achievements, 181–82 destruction by the Aryans, 181 bullock-cart, 157 decline, 181 domestic animal, 184–212 ass, 193–94 buffalo, 187–91 bull, 184–85 camel, 192–93 cat, 211 elephant, 191–93 horse, absence of, 287 pig, 195–211 zebu, 185–87 domestication of birds, 212 fowl, 212–13 India, 139–55 Pakistan, 130–39 Mesopotamian influence, 132 use of wood, 181–82 Harappan irrigation system, 289 Harappan sites India, 139–51 Gujarat, 151 Haryana, 142–47 Jammu, 147 Madhya Pradesh, 154 Punjab, 139–42 Rajasthan, 148–51 West U.P., 147–48 Pakistan, 130–39 Harappans, 132–37 Harshacharita, 428 Haryana camels in agriculture, 193 Harappan sites, 142–47 Bhagwanpura, 142–43 soil, 14 Harvests and harvesting, 299, 317 Greek account, 360 Jatakas, 361 Hastinapur Iron Age site, 304, 308 Painted Grey Pottery, 305 rice, 271,318 HAWKES, Jacquetta, 76, 109 pebble tools, 68 Hearths of agriculture, 268–69 HELBACK, emergence of new plants, 111 Hemiones, 282 Hipparion, ancestor of horse, 281 Hippopotamus, 46 The Himalayas formation, 3, 4 glaciations, 61 still rising, 68 HIUEN TSANG, 421–26 visit to Lumbini grove, 325–26 Hindus, and the banyan tree, 327 Hobindian culture, Thailand, 265–66 Holocene, 56 Homa and soma drinks, 279 Hominids, 49–53 Hominization, 48–55 Homo habilis, 54–55 Homo erectus, 63–68 Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, 71–75 Homo sapiens sapiens, 75–76 Honry, 315 from wild bees, 99 Horse and ancient civilization, 289 absence in Harappan civilization, 287 centre of origin, 282 earliest pictorial record, 287 and elephants, 192 evolution, 283–84 Horse-bones finds, 305–307 Horse-breeding, 284, 278 Aryans, 278 Horse-flesh and the Aryans, 293 Horse-harness, 288 Horses domestication, 282–87 by Aryans, 280 in India, 287–89 import, 420–21 Kushan period, 401 later-Vedic, 317 Mauryan period, 373–74 trade with Arabia, 446–55 Sintashta, USSR, 281 Horticulture Harappan agriculture, 180 Mesopotamia, 112 Houses Ahar-Banasian culture, 150–51 Kalibangan, 149 later-Vedic, 314 Neolithic, 107, 264 see also Dwelling pits HROZNY, and Kikkuli Text, 284-87 Hunters and hunting Aryan sport, 296 early man, 82 Mesolithic, 78-82 Palaeolithic, 71

v1.c49.18

Ice Age, 56-62 Implements and tools agricultural, *see* Agricultural implements Chalcolithic, 111, 138 Metal, Ahar culture, 151 pebble tools, 68, 71, 83 stone tools, 64, 68 India age of Fertile Crescent, 273 agricultural regions, 23-24 Alberuni's account, 473-76 Aryan invasion, 278, 288-89 birth of, 1-7 Chalcolithic culture, 139-54 Gujarat, 151-54 Haryana, 142-47 Jammu, 147 Madhya Pradesh, 154 Punjab, 139-42 Rajasthan, 148-51 Western U. P., 147-48 climatic regions, 21-24 excavated sites (map), 116 Greek account, 34 Hiuen Tsang, 422-24 industry and trade, 476 maritime contacts, 307 meteorology, 8 natural divisions, 1 palaeolithic sites (map), 60 populations, Harappan age, 181 relations with West Asia, 162 soils, 8-20 classification, 8-9 formation, 9-12 map, 13 types, 12-20 trade with china, 443 vegetation, 25-43 India (Peninsula), 1-7 Indo-Australian culture, 82 Indobrahm river, 45

v1.c49.19

Indo-Gangetic plain, 7 Indo-Gangetic soil, 12-14 Indus civilization, *see* Harappan civilization and culture Indus valley floods, 152 Industry and trade, ninth century, 478 Interglacial age, Second, 69 Intertrappeans, 2-3 Intoxicating drinks, Vedic, 315 Inventions, most momentous, 109 Iran basketry, 107 centre of cultivated plants, 269 homeland of Aryans, 280 Neolithic sites, 101 Iron Age, 66 North India, 307-19 agriculture, 317-19 Buddhist period, 338 cast system, 308 domestic animals, 316-17 occupations, 308-13 pastoralism, 315-16 social life, 313 Peninsular India, 306-7 Iron-pillar, Delhi, 417 Iron technology Gupta age, 417-18 Kushan period, 401 later-Vedic, 304-5 Satavahanas, 401 Irrigation Arthashastra, 363 Chalcolithic period, 113 Cholas, 405, 457-61 earliest evidence in India, 259 Egypt, 113 Gupta age, 418 Harappa, 289 Mauryan period, 362-63 rice cultivation, 306 South Indian kingdoms, 403, 457-61 Vedic age, 298 Israel, Neanderthal finds, 75 IVANOV, V., Indo-European languages, 280 Ivory, Kanauj empire, 426

v1.c49.20

Jainism, 303 and cultivation, 332

v1.c49.21

Jarmo, Iraq Neolithic housing, 107 settlements, 102 wheat, 103 Jatakas agriculture, 337, 361 irrigation, 362-63 village organization, 355-56 Java man, 63-65 JELINEK, J., Hominization, 48-49 Jericho, Jordon cultivation of gram, 166 Neolithic houses, 107 Neolithic settlements, 101 Jhuming (Shifting agriculture), 220-22 Eastern India, 263 JONES, Sir William, 278 JORGENSEN, Savend, 222 Jowar (Sorghum) later-Vedic, 318 origin, 245 Jullundur, Harappan finds, 142 Jurassic period, 1 Jute, centre of origin, 269

v1.c49.22

Kadamba tree (Anthocephalus chinensis), 398 Kalibangan, Harappan site ass remains, 194 barley, 163 desertion, 149 gram, 166 pottery, 140 pre-Harappan ploughed fields, 156 KALIDASA, 413 Kanauj empire, 420-35 agriculture, 427 Kanchi (Conjeevaram), 437 Kankar, 14 Kankrej bull, 184 Karnataka chain-tanks, 459 forests, 39 Iron Age sites, 307 Neolithic agriculture, 235-36 tank system, 460-61 vegetation, 39-40 Kashmir-Hazara region and Gondwanaland, 6 Kashmir valley glaciation, 6, 56 Neolithic agriculture, 219-20 Neolithic relic culture, 216-18 KASHYAPA, 483-84 on rice cultivation, 485-87 Kayatha, M. P., 154 Kerala coconut cultivation, 352 forests, 40-41 soil, 19 pepper plants, 406 Kenyapithecus, 49 KHAZANCHI, T. N., and Burzahom, 216, 217 Kitab-ul Hind of Al-Beruni, 472-76 Kitchen gradens, Gupta age, 414 KOSAMBI, D. D., 391 on caste system, 308 on coconut, 392 on Yajur-Vedic society, 315 Krishi-Parashara, 483 Kuchai, Neolithic site, 265 Kurnool, A. P., stone tools, 69 Kushans, 392-97 agriculture, 401 sculptures of trees, 398 Kutch, Gujarat, Harappan site, 153-54 Kutch, Rann of, wild asses, 194

v1.c49.23

Labour, division of, 308 Labourers Harappan, 160 landless, Buddhist period, 338 La-Chapelle-aux-Saint's Cave, 74 Lake formation, 2 LAL, B. B. discovery of Kalibangan, 148 Microlithic people, 79 pebble tools, 69 Pre-Harappan ploughed field, 156 survival of Harappan past, 149-50 Land cultivation, Magadha, 356-57 Land division, Magadha, 358 Land revenue, Hiuen Tsang, 428 Landlords, emergence, 415 Langhnaj people, 80 Later-Vedic Period, 301-19 agriculture, 317-19 caste system, 308 domestic animals, 316-17 Epics, 303-4 iron technology, 304-6

v1.c49.24

North India, 307–19 occupations, 308–13 pastoralism, 315–16 Samhitas, 301–3 social life, 313–15 South India, 306–7 Laterite soil, 16–19 LEAKY, L. S. B. and LEAKY, Mary, 47 discovery of fossils, 49 *Homo erectus*, 65 *Homo habilis*, 54 Leather, 12 and the Aryans, 294 industry, Kanauj empire, 426 LE MESUIER, and South Indian neolithic sites, 233 Lemon, and Harappan agriculture, 180 Lemuria, 2 Lentils, *see* Pulses Lesser Himalayas, *see* Sub-Himalayan zone LEWIS, and *Ramapithecus*, 49 Litchi, centre of origin, 269 Llama, domestication of, 183 Loquat, centre of origin, 269 Lothal, Gujarat, Harappan site, 151–53 bullock cart, 158 cow seals, 184 granary, 161 rice, 271 terracotta horse, 287 Lotus, Harappan culture, 180 Lumbini grove, 325

v1.c49.25

MACKAY, E. J. H. excavations in Sind, 130 fowls in India, 213 Madhya Pradesh Chalcolithic sites, 150, 154, 240–42 soil, 15 Stone-Age paintings, 83–96 Madras Hand-axe complex, 70 Magadhan empire, 340–59 rural economy, 252–59 *Mahabharata*, 303–4 *Mahajanapadas*, 323 Mahanadi basin, 14 Maharashtra Chalcolithic sites, 238 Hiuen Tsang, 440 ostrich egg-shells, 95

v1.c49.26

Palaeolithic sites, 70 soil, 14–15 Maikop, USSR, pictorial records of horse, 287 Maize, hearth of, 269 Malabar coast evergreen forests, 41 origin of rice, 273 rock-cut graves, 307 Malwa-ware, 241 Mamallapuram, 438–39 Mammoths, 71 Man, development of, 48–55 *Australopithecines*, 53–54 fossil man find, 55 *Homo habilis*, 54 *Paranthropus*, 54 *Ramapithecus*, 49 Manasollasa, of Someshvara, 444–45, 478–79 Man-made plants, *see* Cultigens Manda, Jammu, Harappan site, 147 Mangoes, centre of origin, 269 Mangrove forests, 41–43 MANU, Laws of, 413, *see also Arthashastra* Manure, 416 MARCO POLO horse trade, 455 leather, 480 Maria Gonds, and shifting agriculture, 220, 221 Maritime trade, *see* Shipping and maritime trade MARSHAL, Sir John excavations in Sind, 130 Indus Valley finds, 81 pigs in Mohenjo-daro, 211 Mash (pulse), Chalcolithic crop, 243 Masur (pulse), spread of, 244 Mauryan age, agriculture, 360–64 MAX MULLER, F., 278 Maya culture, domestication of animals, 183 Meat-eating later-Vedic period, 315 Neanderthal man, 74 Vedic age, 293 MEDHATITHI on agriculture, 482–83 on industry and trade, 476–78 Medicinal plants centres of origin, 502, 503 in Vedas, 301–2

v1.c49.27

Mediterranean region centre of cultivated plants, 112, 269 horse, 287 Meerut, U. P., Harappan site, 148 Megalithic tombs, 306 Megaliths, 217, 307 Megasthenes, 360 Melons Chalcolithic age, 112 Harappan agriculture, 180 origin, 112 seeds from Harappa, 180 MENANDER, 387 Meso-American civilization, 184 Mesolithic age, 67 cave paintings, 82-96 age, 95 Bhimbetaka, 84, 96 classification, 83 Madhya Pradesh, 94-95 wild animals, 94 climate, 79-80 hunters and food-gatherers, 78-82 social lif, 84 Mesopotamia, Chalcolithic culture, 111-13 birth of agriculture, 111 Chalcolithic Revolution, 111 and Egypt, 113 and Harappan culture, 132 horse, 283-84 horticulture, 112 invention of plough, 111 pottery sacrophagi, 307 wheat, 161, 162 wheeled cart, 111 Metal work Lothal, 152 ninth century, 477 Metals and metallurgy Aryans, 315 later-Vedic, 308 mining, 308 Harappan age, 138 Mexico cultivated plants, 269 domestication of llamas, 183 origin of maize, 269 Milk Arthashastra, 372 and Aryans, 296, 315 churning, 295 from goats, 122 Neolithic age, 107 preparations, 314, 315 Millet earliest record, 245 later-Vedic period, 318 migration to India, 318 Neolithic cultures of South India, 235-36 region, 24 Mining, later-Vedic, 308 see also Metals and metallurgy Miocene, and horse, 282 Miocene-Pliocene epochs, 44-45 Mirzapur, U. P., cave shelters, 82 Mittanis and Rig-Vedic Aryans, 291 Kikkulic Text, 284-85 Mohenjo-daro, 130 barley and wheat finds, 162-63 camel remains, 193 destruction by the Aryans, 289 domestication of fowl, 213 elephants, 191 fish remains, 211 granaries, 159-60 horse figures, absence of, 287 pig remains, 211 terracotta duck, 212 wheat, 161, 162 Money and coinage Indo-Greek, 349 later-Vedic period, 314 Magadhan empire, 348-51 Monsoon, 21-22 eastern depression, 22 western depression, 22-23 see also Rainfall Mountain system, formation, 3 Museum of Evolution of Life, Chandigarh, 231 Mugharet es-Skhul, Israel, Neanderthal finds, 75 Mugharet et-Tabun, Israel, Neanderthal finds, 75 Mule, 129, 374 and the ass, 194 Musk, 480 Mustard, 168 Muzaffarnagar, U. P., Harappan site, 147

v1.c49.28

Naga Hills, Neolithic sites, 263 Nagda, M. P., Chalcolithic site, 154 Nalanda University, 422 Nandi bull Gupta seals, 412 sculptures, 446, 452 Nappes and the Himalayan chain, 4 Narmada valley fossil finds, 2, 62 horse, 282 stone tools, 69 and Tethys Ocean, 1 Natufians, and agriculture, 101 Navdatoli, M. P, Chalcolithic site, 240-2 fruits, 246-53 inhabitants, 241-42 millets, 245 oilseeds, 245 pulses, 242-45 rice, 271 Neanderthal Man, 71-75 distribution (map) 75 Neanderthal Valley, discovery of skeletons, 71 Near East, home of fruits, 112 Neolithic agricultural revolution as a process, 273 major achievements, 214 Western Asia, 101-9 Neolithic cultures Baluchistan, 115-29 Burzahom, 231 characteristics, 214 Eastern India, 62-77 Assam, 262-63 Bihar, 263-64 Orissa, 265 West Bengal, 264-65 relic culture, 216-31 South India, 233-42 Andhra-Karnataka, 233-35 Madhya Pradesh, 240-42 Maharashtra, 238-39 Tamil Nadu, 236-38 Southeast Asia, 265-66 West Asia, 101-9 Neolithic period, 67 agriculture, 101-4 millets, 235-36 pulses, 236 clearing of forests, 221 stone instruments, 130

v1.c49.29

Neolithic settlements Burzahom, 216 South India, 233-38 Paiyampalli, 236-38 Piklihal, 235 Utnur, 235 West Asia, 101, 102 Nevasa, Chalcolithic site, 238-39 New Stone Age, see Neolithic period Nile valley, see Egypt Nilgiris, shola forests, 41 NILSON, Sven, 67 Non Nok Tha, Thailand, earliest record of rice, 271 North America, origin of horse, 282

v1.c49.30

Oats, centre of origin, 269 Occupations, later-Vedic, 308-9, 313 Oilseeds and aryans, 299 centres of origin, 501, 504 Chalcolithic Deccan, 245-46 Harappan agriculture, 166-79 rape, 168 sarson, 168-79 sesame, 166-68 Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania hominid site, 55 Homo erectus finds, 64 Oligocene period, 46 Olives, 269 Onge tribe, Andaman Islands, 96 primitive economy, 22 Ongole cattle, 446 Orchards, 112 Orissa, Neolithic sites, 265 Ornaments and Aryans, 292 and Harappans, 137 later-Vedic, 308 Ostriches in cave drawings, 94 eggshell finds, 94, 95 Oxen, and Chalcolithic revolution, 111 see also Bullocks

v1.c49.31

Pachmarhi, M. P., cave drawings, 94-95 Painted Grey Ware, 305 later-Vedic, 301 sites (map), 302 Paintings and drawings Mesolithic, 82-96 Palaeolithic, 96 Paiyampalli, Tamil Nadu, 236-37 Pakistan camels as beasts of burden, 193 domesticated horse, 287 Harappan culture, 130-8 Soan sites, 68 Palaeolithic Age, 67 cave drawings, 83-96 hunters, 69-71 man, 66-67 sites (map), 60 tools, 71 Pali text, on agriculture, 340 Palms, 40, 383, 506 Pandu Rajar Dhibi, West Bengal Neolithic site, 264-65 rice, 271 Pandyas, 404 Papaya, origin, 269 Paranthropus, 54 Parashara, see Krishi-Parashara Parrots and parakeets, 212 Pastoralism later-Vedic period, 315-16 Vedic age, 290 Pastures, Arthashastra, 371 Pataliputra, Greek accounts, 345-46 PATERSON, discovery of Burzahom, 216 PEAKE, Harold, 280 Pearl fisheries, 480-81 Pears centre of origin, 269 native home, 112 Peas, 166 Peasants pre-Harappan Baluchistan, 115 Harappan, 160 Pebble tools, 68 Bhimbetaka, M. P., 83 Maharashtra, 70 Soan type, 83 South Africa, 71 Peking man, 64-65, see also Homo erectus Penda (Shifting cultivation), 220 Pennisetum, 318 centre of origin, 321 see also Bajra

v1.c49.32

Pepper, 406 centre of origin, 269 Periplus of the Erythraen Sea, 403 Persian wheel, 478 Peru centre of potato, 269 domestication of llama, 183 Pests, 318 Philippines, introduction of rice, 270 PIGGOT, S. classification of Baluchi culture, 115, 116 invasion of Aryans, 288 origin of Aryans, 280 Pigs, 194-210 domestication, 107 Harappan crop-robbers, 183 origin and spread, 101, 211 PILGRIM, research on fossils, 47, 49 Pineapple, original home, 269 Pinjore, Punjab, stone axes, 231 Pipal tree (Ficus religiosa), 324, 326, 328 Bodhi tree, 326 Pit-dwellings, 217 Pithecanthropus erectus, 63 Plaksha tree (Butea monosperma), 325 Plants cultivation centres of origin, 501-5 Neolithic culture, 103-4 diseases, 363 as food, 98-99 immigration, 25 mentioned in Sanskrit literature, 506-10 and rocks, 12 Pleistocene epoch, 44-45 buffalo, 188 camel, 192 fauna, 62-63 appearance of horse, 282 Siwalik hills, 6 Pliocene-Miocene epoch, 44-45 Pliopithecus, 47 Plough bullock-drawn, 111 Chalcolithic period, 113-4 development, 156-57 Harappan agriculture, 156-57 invention, 111, 113-14 later-Vedic, 317 Mesopotamia, 115 origin, 113

v1.c49.33

Sanskrit equivalent, 280 Sumerian, 114 Vedic age, 297 Ploughed field discovery, 156 Ploughing and tilling, Vedic age, 297-98 Ploughshares, later-Vedic, 304 Polished stone-axes discoveries in India, 231 Neolithic man, 221 Pomegranate Harappan agriculture, 180 native home, 112 Pondicherry-Tiruchirapalli sector, fauna, 2 Population and food production, Harappa, 180-81 Stone Age, 181 Potato, origin, 269 Potter's wheel, invention of, 283 Pottery Aryan, 295 Chalcolithic, 241 Egypt, 113 Harappan Chandigarh, 140 Lothal, 152 Rupar, 139 Neolithic, 107, 217-18 painted grey, see Painted Grey Ware South India, 306 wheel-turned, pre-Harappan, 115 Pre-Harappan culture Baluchistan, 115-44 domestication of animals, 118-44 survival, 149-50 Pre-Soan culture, 68 Primates evolution, 46-55 fossils, 48 Protection of crops, Harappa, 158-59 PRUFER, Olaf, Palaeolithic sites, 69 Przewalskis horse, 282 Pulses, centres of origin, 269, 501, 503, 504 cultivation, Navdatoli, M. P., 242-43 finds, 236 mash, 236 masur history, 243 spread, 244 mung, 242 Paiyampalli, 237

v1.c49.34

Punjab Aryans, 290 settlements, 282 domestication of cats, 211 Harappan sites, 139-42 soil, 14 Stone Age culture (map), 73 and Vedas, 282 Punjab (Pakistan), Chalcolithic culture, 130-9 Punjab Wedge and the Himalayas, 6 Punjabis and Iranians, 281-82 and Southern Russia, 282 Purana Qila, Delhi, pottery finds, 305 Pure Sundari forest, 42

v1.c49.35

Quaternary period, 56-76 migration of horse, 282 Querns Ahar-Banasian culture, 150 Mohenjo-daro, 163

v1.c49.36

Radioactivity dating, 78-79 Radiocarbon dating, 78-79 of Ahar-Banasian culture, 151 of Lothal, 153 of Mesolithic age, 78, 79 Ragi cultivation, 235 Rainfall and forests India, 21 eastern rice region, 21 Malabar coconut region, 24 northern wheat region, 24 southern millet region, 24 temperate Himalayan region, 23 and monsoon, 21, 22 Rain-forests, 40-41 Rajasthan Harappan sites, 148-51 Sarasvati valley, 148, 149 Vegetation, 30 Rajput kingdoms, 471-81 agriculture, 478-80 Chandellas, 472 Chauhans, 472 Gahadvalas, 472 Pramaras, 471

v1.c49.37

Solankis, 472 textile industry, 477 RAMA DHAN SINGH, wheat species, 162 *Ramapithecus*, 49-53 Ramayana, 304 Rangpur, Gujarat, Harappan site, 153 RAO, S. R., discoveries Lothal, 152-53 bullock-cart, 158 gold, 153 seed-drill, 157 Rape seed, origin, 168-69 Rashtrakutas, 437 *Rath* (Aryan chariot), 288 Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, soil, 19 Red Indians, and absence of animals, 183 Red soil, 15-16 Regur soil, 14 Revenue administration, Magadha, 252, 357 Rice archaeological record, 271 centres of origin in India, 273 cultivation irrigation, 306 Neolithic, 269-71 KASHYAPA on, 485-88 South Indian kingdoms, 403 husk and mud plaster, 314 later-Vedic age, 317-18 Magadhan variety, 427 oldest centre, 269 origin, 269-70, 271-73 preparations, 314 regions, 24 species, 271 transplanting, Andhra, 391 Vedas, not mentioned in, 300 Rice-eating, Ahar-Banasian culture, 150-51 *Rig-Veda*, 291, 301 agriculture, 297 chariots, 288 and Greeks, 278 Harappans, destruction of, 289 honey, 315 horses, 287 Punjab, 290 Ring barking, deforestation, 221 Ring wells Buddhist period, 346 Deccan, 391 Rupar, 346

v1.c49.38

Ritusanhara, 413 River buffalo, 189, 190 Rock-shelters Madhya Pradesh, 78 Orissa, 82 Rocks and atmosphere, 11 estimating the age, 78-79 and plants, 11-12 Rodent control and cats, 211 Root crops centres of origin, 501, 504 Rubber, original home, 269 Rupar, Punjab, Harappan site, 139-40, 141 drainage system, 132 Painted Grey Ware, 305 ring wells, 346 Rural economy Buddhist period, 332-35 Gupta period, 415 Magadhan empire, 362-69 Russian steppes, and horse, 283

v1.c49.39

Saddle-querns, 163 Ahar-Banasian culture, 150 Harappans, 163 Madhya Pradesh, 241 Sahara, 1 Saharanpur, U. P., Harappan site, 147 SAHNI, Daya Ram, excavations at Harappa, 130 Salabhanjika, 414 in Kushan sculpture, 397 SALI, S. L., ostrich eggshells, 95 Saline soils, 20 Sal-tree (*Shorea robusta*), 325 Sama Veda, 301 Samhitas, 301-3 Sanchi, 288 discovery of agricultural implements, 402 Sandalwood, 41 Sangam age, 404, 406-9 Sanghol, Harappan finds, 140 SANKALIA, H. D. Assam, Neolithic, 263 Chalcolithic burial site, 239 Langhnaj people, 80 Microliths, 70 Navdatoli excavations, 240 Neolithic cultures, 233, 262

v1.c49.40

SANTIDEV, 426 Saptasindhavah (Land of Five Rivers), 290 Sarasvati river Aryan settlement, 290 dry bed, 148 Harappan culture, 148 Valley, 142, 149 Sarson, centre of origin, 168 Satavahanas, 388–91, see also Andhra Satapatha Brahmana, and meat-eating, 315 SAUER, O. C., diffusion of agriculture, 268 Seals, Harappan civilization, 130 Mohenjo-daro, 184 Seasons, 21 described by Bana, 428 Ritusamhara, 413 Seed-drill earliest, 114 Lothal, 157 Seeding, 268 Semites and Chalcolithic phase, 113 in Egypt, 113 Sesame, 166 and Aryans, 299 Harappan agriculture, 166–68 introduction in India, 168 origins, 177–78 SHARMA, S. D., rice plant, 270 SHARMA, Y. D. Bara culture, 140 Excavations at Rupar, 139 SHASTRY, S. V. S., rice plant, 270 Sheep ancestors, 101 and Aryans, 296 difference from goats, 122–29 domestication, 120–29 by Aryans, 280 Baluchistan, 118 early man, 82 Harappa, 183 Mauryan age, 366 remains from Sintashta, USSR, 281 source of food, 107 Shifting agriculture, 220–21 Eastern India, 263 Shipping and maritime trade, Harappa, 152 Shipyard, Lothal, 152 Shola forests, 41 Shudras, 290 later-Vedic period, 308 Sickle (harvesting tool) Aryan, 299 later-Vedic, 305 Neolithic, 101 Siksha-samuchchaya, 426 Silk, 239, 480 Gupta age, 411 Hiuen Tsang, 426 Sind Chalcolithic culture, 130–39 domestication of cat, 211 see also Harappa Singh, Ram Dhan, see RAM DHAN SINGH SINHA, Surajit, shifting agriculture, 220 Sintashta, USSR, Aryan site, 280–81 Sittannavasal frescoes, 438 Siwalik river, 45 Siwaliks, 6 early man, 68 glaciation, 61 and horses, 282 Miocene-Pliocene epochs, 41–45 Neolithic settlements, 231 prehistoric tools, 68 Si-Yu-ki, see Hiuen Tsang Slaughter houses, Mauryan period, 377 Sling-balls and crop-protection, Harappan, 159 Snakebites, 363–64 Soan culture, 68 industry, 70 Social security, Arthashastra, 358 Soil fertility, Greek account, 360 Soils, 8–20 classification, Amarakosha, 416 formation, 9–11 action of animals, 12 action of plants, 11 foundations, 8–9 Hiuen Tsang, 423–24 map, 13 types, 10–20 Solar calendar, Chalcolithic revolution, 111, 113 SOLECKI, Ralph S., Neanderthal finds, 74 Solid-wheel cart, Indus Valley, 157–58 Soma drink, 279 and Aryans, 293 Sorghum, 245, 269 South India Chalcolithic settlements, 233 kingdoms, 403–9 Iron Age, 306–7 Neolithic settlements, 233–61 third centre of cultivated plants, 269 Southeast Asia centre of rice origin, 270 hearth of agriculture, 266, 269 home of cultigens, 266 Indian influence, 412 Soviet Union, and Aryans, 280 Soyabean, centre of origin, 269 Spices, 418, 443–45 centres of origin, 502, 503 Sports and Aryans, 293, 314 Srikantha region, crops, 432–33 STEIN, Sir Aurel, 115 Steppes, and horses, 283 Stone Age, 66, 67 drawings, 83 map, 73 Stone-axes, Neolithic, 102, 231 Stone tools and implements Chalcolithic, 138 Peking man, 64 Siwaliks, 68 see also Microliths Stone querns, 117 see also Saddle querns Sub-Himalayan zone, 6 Sudarshana lake, 363 Sugarcane and Arabs, 113 and Aryans, 299 centres of origin, 502 Greek account, 360 oldest centre, 269 origin, 113 Sumerian civilization, 111 decline, 114 plough, 156 Sunderbans, 41, 42 Sungas, 387 Sura drink, 293, 315 SURAJ BHAN, Haryana Harappan sites, 142 Surkotda, Gujarat Chalcolithic site, 153–54 find of horse bones, 187 Swamp buffalo, 189

v1.c49.41

Sweet-potato, centre of origin, 269

v1.c49.42

Talkoli, bull drawing, 84 Tamil Nadu Neolithic settlements, 233 Paiampalli, 236–37 soil, 14 tanks, 459–60 Tandoor, Harappan survival, 150 Tanks in irrigation, 459–61 Tapioca, original home, 269 Tapti valley, 1 Tattiriya Samhita, and sowing seasons, 318 Tea, centre of origin, 269 Teak, 41 forests, 40 Harappa, 181 Temple gardens, 398 Terracottas, 159, 163 Tertiary Period, 3–4, 44–55 Australopithecines, 53–55 climate, 45 fauna, 46 hominization, 48–53 primates, 46–48 Siwalik system, 44–45 subdivisions, 44 Tethys Ocean, 1–2 Textiles export to Mesopotamia, 180 Indus Valley, 179 Mohenjo-daro, 179 ninth century, 477 Thailand age of Fertile Crescent, 273 earliest rice record, 271 Hoabinhian culture, 265–66 Thanesar tract, see Srikantha region THAPAR, B. K., discoveries Neolithic sites, 117 pre-Harappan ploughed field, 156 Thar desert, 29–30 Thorn forests, 29–30 Three-Ages notion, 66 Tigris, 111, 114 Timber, Harappa, 181 see also Wood TIWARI, D. K., 97 Tobacco, origin, 269 Toilet articles, 308

v1.c49.43

Tomato, origin, 269 Tombs, see Graves and tombs Tons valley finds, 233 Tools and implements Abbevillian, 65 Acheulian, 70–71 bronze, 281 Burzahom, 218 Chalcolithic, 138 Deccan, 238 from graves, 306 later-Vedic, 317 Mesolithic, 78 Micolithic industry, 78, 79 Neolithic, 102, 263 blade industry, 79 Palaeolithic, 70–71 sites (map), 60 pebble tools, 68, 70, 71, 83 pre-historic, 68 Soan type, 69–70 stone, see Stone tools and implements Teri industry, 79 Toria, 168 Town-planning Harappan, 132 origin, 113 Towns Harappan, 130–2 Kalibangan, 148–50 Lothal, 151–53 Kanauj empire, 424–25 origin, 113 Toy cart, from Lothal, 158 TOYNBEE, Arnold and Sumerians, 114 Toys Harappan, 159 plough, 158 Lothal, 152 bullock cart, 158 model of a plough, 156 wheeled cart, 157 Trade, Harappa, 137, 160 Magadhan empire, 348 Transport and Aryans, 288 animals in, 533–34 Tree, oldest historical, 327 Tree Goddess, 397 Tree of knowledge, 327

v1.c49.44

Tree planting by Asoka, 379–84 Tree worship, Buddhism, 325 Asoka, 379 Trees asoka tree, 324, 413 banyan, 327, 328, 360 beach forests, 43 dhak, 413 mangrove vegetation, 41–43 pipal, 326, 328 sal, 325 teak, 41 Tribes, 96–99 food habits, 97–98 Triassic period, 1 Trinil deposits, 63, 64 TROELS-SMITH, Jorgen, forest clearing, 221 Tropical evergreen forests, 40–41 Tropical thorn forests, 29–30 Tuber crops see Root crops Turkestan, domestication of horse, 283 Turmeric (Curuma longa), 267 Turnip, 168

v1.c49.45

Umbrella stone, 306 Upanishads, 303 Ur, Mesopotamia, 111 Urd, chalcolithic pulse crop, 243 Urban civilization, Harappan, 130–32, 138 Uruk culture, wheeled vehicles, 283 Utensils, Lothal, 152 Utnur-Nevasa, Neolithic culture, 233–36 Uttar Pradesh, Harappan sites, 147–48

v1.c49.46

Vaisyas Kanauj empire, 428 later-Vedic, 308 Varnas, Vedic, 308 Vasant Panchami festival, 414 VATS, M. S. discoveries seeds of pea, 166 sesame at Harappa, 166 excavations in Punjab, 139 in Sind, 130 VAVILOV, N. I. original home of masur, 243 wheat varieties, 162 Vedas and fowl, 213 Atharva Veda, 301, 303 Rig Veda, 278, 287, 288, 290, 291, 297, 301, 315 Sama Veda, 301 Yajur Veda, 301, 315, 317 VEDEL-SIMONSEN, 66 Vedic Age, 290-300 agriculture, 297-300 archaeological remains, 291-92 Aryans, 292-97 see also Vedic Period, Later Vedic Period, Later, 301-20 agriculture, 317-19 Brahmanas, 301-3 domestic animals, 316-17 Epics, 303-4 life in Northern India, 307-16 Southern India, 306-7 mastery of iron technology, 304-6 Vegetables Amarakosha, 418 centres of origin, 269, 502, 503, 504 Kanauj empire, 427 Vegetation alpine zone, 27 central India, 39 Deccan, 39 destruction in Harappa, 181 India, 25-43 regions, 25-26 desiduous forests, 30-40 Eastern Himalayas, 27-29 mangrove forests, 41-43 Temperate Himalayan Region, 26-27 Tropical Evergreen Rain forests, 40-41 Vegetative propagation, 266 Veterinary services, Mauryan period, 377 Village life, later Vedic, 313 Villages Aryan, 294 Buddhist period, 335-37 classification, 354 formation, 352-54 Kanauj empire, 424-25 Magadhan, 352-56 parts of, 354-55 South India, 470

v1.c49.47

VISHNU-MITTRE, and rice eating, 150 Viticulture, 112, see also Grapes Volcanic eruptions, 2 VOELCKER, classification of soils, 12 VOLLOIS, H. V., Neolithic revolution, 274 VON KOENIGWALD, discovery of infant skull, 63

v1.c49.48

WAKANKAR, V. S. Bhimbetaka cave, 84, 95 Kayatha culture, 154 Stone-Age paintings, 83 Walnuts, 112, 269 Warfare, animals in, 433-34 elephants, 192 Water-logging and Sumerians, 114 Water-melon, 269 Water storage, South India, 406-7 see also Tanks Weapons Aryan, 289 copper, 138 Weaving Aryans, 296 invention, 109 Neolithic, 107, 274 Weights and measures Harappa, 130 later-Vedic, 314 Lothal, 152 masha, 243 Wells, 298, 401, see also Ring wells West Asia barley, 162 Neolithic Agricultural Revolution, 101-4 spread of horse, 287 West Bengal Neolithic sites, 264-65 soils, 14 Western Ghats, evergreen forests, 40 Western Himalayas, vegetation, 101 Wheat ancestors, 101 chapati, Ahar-Banasian culture, 150 centre of origin, 269 Euphrates valley, 114 Harappan agriculture, 157, 161-62 later-Vedic, 317 Neolithic culture, 103-4 Agricultural Revolution, 101 oldest centre, 269 region, 24 varieties, 161–62 vedas, 300 Wheeled cart Harappan, 157–58 spread, 283 WHEELER, Sir Mortimer granaries at Harappa, 159 Harappan culture, 138, 181 invasion of the Aryans, 289 iron industry and Aryans, 307 WHYTE, R. O., 112, 114 Wheel, invention of, 111, 157, 281 Wild animals cave drawings, 94 domestication, 118 as pests, 158–59 Wild ass, 194 Wild plants as food, 99 Wolves pets of early man, 82 Mesolithic period, 80–81 Women discovery of agriculture, 102 domestication of animals, 82 position of, later-Vedic, 313 sowing of crops, 102 toilet, 137, 413

v1.c49.49

Wood Harappa, 181–82 South Indian Neolithic sites, 261 Wool, 290, 296 workers, payment to, 357–58 Writing, Harappan culture, 137

v1.c49.50

*Yajur-Veda*, 301 and Aryan society, 315 drinks and beverages, 315 reference to elephants, 317 reference to horses, 317 *Yakshis* (Tree Goddesses), 397–98 *Yava* grains, later-Vedic, 317 YUAN-CHWANG, *see* HIUEN TSANG

v1.c49.51

Zebu, 185 and agriculture, 186–87 domestication, 186 Mohenjo-daro seals, 184 origin, 186 vase paintings, 259 ZEUNER, F. E., 82 domestication of ass, 193–94 domestication of sheep, 121 horse-drawn chariots, 253 silk, 239 Zoroastrianism, 279

v1.c49.52

The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.

v1.c49.53

These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.

v1.c49.54

The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.

v1.c49.55

By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.

v1.c49.56

The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.