A History of Agriculture in India v1.c6: List of Illustrations
A History of Agriculture in India v1.c6
- Language
- English
List of Illustrations
v1.c6.1
1. Palaeogeographic map of Gondwanaland in the middle and upper Cretaceous (After Ahmad) 3
v1.c6.2
2. During the upper Cretaceous, stupendous volcanic outbursts overwhelmed a vast area in what is now Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. From the lava, the black cotton soil was formed over the ages 5
v1.c6.3
3. The occurrence of Archaean and Purana Rocks and the Deccan Trap in India. 10
v1.c6.4
4. Soil map of India (After S. P. Raychaudhuri) 13
v1.c6.5
5. The Indo-Gangetic plain in the Punjab has a rich alluvial soil, which produces bumper crops of wheat and rice 17
v1.c6.6
6. The deep black soils in the Pune District, Maharashtra, produce bumper crops of cotton, sugaracane and rice. The fields are dotted with trees of mango and *Acacia nilotica*. In the background are the flat-topped mountains of the Deccan Trap 17
v1.c6.7
7. The medium black cotton soil of trap and gneissic origin in the Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu, yields rich crops of cotton and sugarcane 18
v1.c6.8
8. Barren Archaean granite is covered with a thin layer of soil at Hampi, in the Bellary District, Karnataka. Good soil is found only in the low-lying areas 18
v1.c6.9
9. A forest of sal (*Shorea robusta*), Dehra Dun. Sal forests are found at the foothills of the Himalayas from Uttar Pradesh and Assam. They are also found in the forest belt comprising southern Bihar, western Orissa and eastern Madhya Pradesh (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 31
v1.c6.10
10. A young forest of *Pinus roxburghii* in the Siwaliks, Uttar Pradesh (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 32
v1.c6.11
11. A forest of *Cedrus deodara* near Simla, 2,134 metres above sea-level. *Cedrus deodara* is the most stately tree in the forests of the western Himalayas (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 33
v1.c6.12
12. A dry deciduous forest containing *Boswellia serrata* and *Acacia catechu* in Madhya Pradesh (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 34
v1.c6.13
13. A forest of teak (*Tectona grandis*) in Madhya Pradesh (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 35
v1.c6.14
14. A tropical wet evergreen forest in Kerala. *Left to right*: small *Dipterocarpus bourdillonii*, *Vitex altissima*, large *Dipterocarpus*, large *Kingiodendron pinnatum* and *Polyalthia* sp. Shendurney Coupe V, Shencottah Division, Kerala (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 36
v1.c6.15
15. The Nilgiri *sholas* and grassland, Ootacamund, Tamil Nadu. The *shola* forests are a living fossil community limited to the hollows, especially the heads of water-courses. Once destroyed, they do not regenerate (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 37
v1.c6.16
16. Pure *sundri* forest (*Heritiera fomes*), Sunderbans, West Bengal, showing dense pneumatophore growth and buttressing of trees (Courtesy: Forest Research Institute) 38
v1.c6.17
17. Hominoid sites in the Siwaliks in India and Pakistan: Haritalynagar near Bilaspur (Himachal Pradesh), Kirmu and Dal Sar near Ramnagar (Jammu), and the Salt Range in the Attock and Jhelum Districts, Pakistan (After A. P. Khatri) 48
v1.c6.18
18. Reconstruction of the skull of *Ramapithecus* (After Jelinek) 50
v1.c6.19
19. A group of rhesus monkeys, Mughal A.D. 1596 (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi) 51
v1.c6.20
20. Principal deposits of fossil man in Africa. (i) Transvaal Sites, *Australopithecus africanus* and *Australopithecus robustus*, about 2 million years old; Dart, 1924, and Broom, 1936; (ii) Olduvai Gorge; *Australopithecus boisei* (1959) and *Homo habilis* (1961), both 1.8 million years old; Louis and Mary Leakey; (iii) the lower Omo River: early hominids, ranging from 1 million to 4 million years old; Howell and Coppens, 1969; (iv) Lake Turkana: *Homo* skull, 2 million to 3 million years old (1972), and 1.5-million-year-old *Homo erectus* skull (1975); Richard Leakey; (v) Laetolil; 3.35- to 3.75-million-year-old *Homo* jaw-bones and teeth; Mary Leakey, 1974-75; and (vi) Hadar: "Lucy", 3-million-year-old *Australopithecus* skeleton, and *Homo* "family"; Johanson and Taieb, 1974-75 52
v1.c6.21
21. The world in the middle part of the Quaternary period. The darker areas were glaciated. The Himalayan glaciers descended into lower valleys 56
v1.c6.22
22. Discovery of fire and fashioning of pebble tools were the major achievements of Peking man, about half a million years ago (Reconstruction from the Museum of Evolution of Life, Chandigarh) 57
v1.c6.23
23. A comparison of the cranial sizes: chimpanzee 400 cc; *Homo erectus erectus* 860 cc; *Sinanthropus* 1,075 cc; *Homo sapiens fossilis* 1,300 cc; modern man 1,400 cc; Neanderthal man 1,500 cc 57
v1.c6.24
24. The most primitive Palaeolithic stone tools are choppers from Soãn, Pothohar Plateau, West Panjab, Pakistan. They were 25. cutting-tools and were used for cutting chunks of meat and to scrape hides. They are about half a million years old Acheulian hand-axe complex from Attirampakkam, Chingleput District, Tamil Nadu, approximately 200,000 years old. A cutting-tool edged on both sides, it was used for digging, chopping and cutting 58
v1.c6.25
26. Primitve men fashioning Acheulian stone tools, about 200,000 years old. One of them is flaying a hunted animal with a hand-axe (Reconstruction from the Museum of Evolution of Life, Chandigarh) 59
v1.c6.26
27. Important sites from which Palaeolithic tools have been discovered in India and Pakistan. Apart from the sites shown in this map, stone tools have been discovered from numerous other places (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 60
v1.c6.27
28. Major sites where the remains of *Homo erectus* have been found. Skirting mountain barriers and deserts, *Homo erectus* spread from the tropics of east Africa, northern India, Java and China to temperate lands of Asia and Europe over a period of a million years 66
v1.c6.28
29. Skull of: 1, modern chimpanzee: 2, modern man; 3, Neanderthal man; 4, Peking man; 5, *Australopithecus* (hominid); 6, *Proconsul africanus*; 7, *Adapis parisiensis*, an ancient lemur. An increase in the size of brain and its complexity and a reduction in brow-ridges in man as compared with hominids is noteworthy (Courtesy: UNESCO) 67
v1.c6.29
30. The comparative occurrence of chopper-chopping tools and bifacial hand-axes. Chopper-chopping tools were more common in the Siwaliks of India and Pakistan. Bifacial hand-axes predominated in the south (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 72
v1.c6.30
31. The Stone Age sites in Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. A number of such sites have been discovered in the Kangra Valley in Himachal Pradesh and in the Valley of the Sirsa River above Chandigarh (After H. D. Sankalia) 73
v1.c6.31
32. The distribution of Neanderthal man (After Charles Singer *et al.*, *History of Technology*, Vol. 1, 1954. The Clarendon Press, Oxford) 75
v1.c6.32
33a. Adamgarh rock-shelters near Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh. These cave-shelters were occupied by Palaeolithic and Mesolithic hunters. The lower levels yielded palaeoliths and the upper microliths 85
v1.c6.33
33b. Detail of a cave-shelter at Adamgarh. The overhanging rock provided shelter to hunters against inclement weather.
v1.c6.34
The roof is painted with hunting-scenes. 85
v1.c6.35
34. Microliths from Birbhanpur, District Burdwan, near the Damodar Valley, West Bengal, 4000 B.C. They include blades, lunates, points and borers and burins (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 86
v1.c6.36
35. A Mesolithic scene. A man is shooting an arrow tipped with a sharp microlith at an antelope. The other is throwing on a deer a spear tipped with a sharpened stone (Reconstruction from the Museum of Evolution of Life, Chandigarh) 87
v1.c6.37
36. Toys from Mohenjo-daro, depicting a variety of dogs (After Mackay) 87
v1.c6.38
37. Cave-shelters at Bhimbetaka, near Bhopal, Raisen District, Madhya Pradesh. The walls and roofs of cave-shelters have paintings dating from the Mesolithic to the early historic period 88
v1.c6.39
38. Interior of the cave at Bhimbetaka. This cave has been in occupation since Palaeolithic times, as is evidenced by the discovery of Acheulian tools from the lowermost layer 89
v1.c6.40
39. Stone-tool types from the Palaeolithic to the Neolithic age 84
v1.c6.41
40. A rock-shelter at Bhimbetaka. The roof is painted with figures of gaur, deer, sambhar, etc. (Courtesy: A. P. Khatri) 90
v1.c6.42
41. Mesolithic painting from a cave-shelter at Bhimbetaka. Herds of *cheetal*, wild buffaloes and cattle are shown 90
v1.c6.43
42a. A gaur from a cave painting at Bhimbetaka 91
v1.c6.44
42b. A buffalo-bull—a Mesolithic painting from a cave-shelter at Bhimbetaka 91
v1.c6.45
43. Chronological and stylistic development of rock-painting in India (After V. S. Wakankar) 93
v1.c6.46
44. Life in the Mesolithic age: 1, amorous couples; 2, pregnant women; 3, the birth of a child; 4, child-rearing; 5, children playing; 6, initiation of a child; 7, cure by magic; 8, ceremony for the dead; 9, the burial of a child, and a family in mourning (After V. S. Wakankar) 94
v1.c6.47
45. A Mesolithic painting from Bhimbetaka. Hunters armed with bows, arrows and spears are chasing game. Human figures are elongated to show rhythmic action (After V. S. Wakankar) 95
v1.c6.48
46. Animals depicted in Bhimbetaka rock-paintings: 1, a wild buffalo; 2, a gaur; 3, a rhinoceros; 4, a boar; 5, a chinkara; 6, a spotted deer; 7, a sambhar; 8, a deer; 9, a blue bull (*nilgai*); 10, an elephant; 11, a tiger or panther; 12, a tiger (After V. S. Wakankar) 98
v1.c6.49
47. African birds and animlas in Mesolithic cave-paintings from Madhya Pradesh: *top*, a giraffe, Bhimbetaka; *middle*, ostriches, Bazar Cave, Pachmarhi; *bottom*, giraffes, Adamgarh cave-shelter, near Hoshangabad 92
v1.c6.50
48. A Neolithic rural scene, depicting the harvesting of wheat and barely with stone sickles, with clusters of huts in the background (Reconstruction from the Museum of Evolution of Life, Chandigarh) 105
v1.c6.51
49. The distribution of the wild ancestors of domestic plants and animals in the Old World (Based on a map in Sonia Cole, *The Neolithic Revolution*; by permission of the trustees of the British Museum, Natural History; courtesy: UNESCO) 106
v1.c6.52
50. The diffusion of farming into Asia and Europe (Based on a map in Sonia Cole, *The Neolithic Revolution*; by permission of the Trustees of the British Museum, Natural History; courtesy: UNESCO) 106
v1.c6.53
51. Neolithic sites in South-West Asia and eastern Europe (After J. Braidwood, Oriental Institute, University of Chicago: courtesy: UNESCO) 108
v1.c6.54
52. Ancestry of common wheat (After P. C. Mangelsdorf) 108
v1.c6.55
53a. Neolithic cultures of Indian subcontinent 116
v1.c6.56
53b. Neolithic cultures of Indian subcontinent and relative chronology based on ¹⁴C dating (After B. K. Thapar) 117
v1.c6.57
54. Zebu bulls painted on pottery, and bull figurines, Kulli Culture, from a site in Kolwa, in southern Baluchistan (After S. Piggot) 119
v1.c6.58
55. A Brahmani bull, Mughal, eighteenth century (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi) 123
v1.c6.59
56. The wild goat (*Capra hircus*) is still found in the barren hills of Baluchistan and western Sind. It is the chief ancestral stock from which the various breeds of domestic goat have been derived 124
v1.c6.60
57. Domestication of sheep and goats. Toys and seals from Mohenjo-daro: *top*, a ram; *middle, left*, a wild goat (*Capra hircus*); *middle, right*, a domesticated goat: *bottom*, a domesticated goat (After Mackay and Vats) 125
v1.c6.61
58. The *nayan* (*Ovis amon hodgsoni*), the largest wild sheep with curled horns, is found in northern Ladakh, Spiti, Sikkim, Kumaon, Nepal and Tibet. The legend is that it eats snakes. Mughal, early eighteenth century (Courtesy: Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad) 126
v1.c6.62
59. Dumba, a breed of sheep with a fat tail. Mughal, early eighteenth century (Courtesy: Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay) 127
v1.c6.63
60. Markhor (*Capra falconeri*), a wild goat with horns spirally twisted like a cork-screw, is found in Afghanistan and from Hazara to the Pir Panjal mountain range in Kashmir. Mughal, seventeenth century (Courtesy: Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad) 128
v1.c6.64
61. Harappan and pre-Harappan sites (After Y. D. Sharma) 131
v1.c6.65
62. Systematic town-planning with rectangular blocks separated by broad main streets as seen is excavated remains at Mohenjo-daro, Sind, Pakistan, 2300 B.C. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 133
v1.c6.66
63. Head of a bearded man wearing a shawl with trefoil motif. The shawl was possibly of cotton. Mohenjo-daro, 2300 B.C. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 134
v1.c6.67
64. A bronze figure of a nude dancing-girl wearing bracelets (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi) 135
v1.c6.68
65. A painted dish on stand. This type of pottery is typical of Harappan Civilization. Harappa, 2300 B.C. 135
v1.c6.69
66. Bronze objects, axes, knife, a chisel, etc., from Sind and Harappa (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 136
v1.c6.70
67. A schematic section across the Nalagarh mound at Rupar, 1953, showing strata, 2000 B.C. to A.D. 600. In the lowest stratum, Harappan wares with bronze implements were discovered. These were overlain by Painted Grey Ware 140
v1.c6.71
68. Sequence of Rupar culture from sections of the Nalagarh mound, Rupar, Punjab (After Y. D. Sharma) 141
v1.c6.72
69. Ringed soak-wells for draining waste water from houses in the Nalagarh mound (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 143
v1.c6.73
70. A burial from Rupar. A number of pots, some containing foodgrains, were buried along with the corpse (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 143
v1.c6.74
71. A reconstruction of the Harappan town near Chandigarh, c. 2000 B.C. (Courtesy: Museum of Evolution of Life, Chandigarh) 144
v1.c6.75
72. A reconstruction of the proto-historic village of Ahar (After H. D. Sankalia) 144
v1.c6.76
73. Excavation at Ahar near Udaipur, in Rajasthan. Corn bins and chulahs are shown. Rice grains were found along with pottery, 1800 B.C. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 145
v1.c6.77
74. A well and a public drain at Lothal, a Harappan site in Saurashtra, 2300 B.C. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 146
v1.c6.78
75. Geographical distribution of wheat and barley, together with dates, in the Indian subcontinent (After Vishnu-Mittre) 164
v1.c6.79
76. Wheat cultivation in the Neolithic period and in the present age (After (Vishnu-Mittre) 165
v1.c6.80
77. Distribution of the genus *Cicer* and the main areas of cultivation of *C. arietinum* in the Old World. The dotted line encloses the areas where the species of genus *Cicer* are found. The continuous line encloses the areas where *C. arietinum* is cultivated (After L. J. G. van der Maesen) 167
v1.c6.81
78. Plough, terracotta, 7 × 19.7 cm. Mohenjo-daro, *c.* 2300 B.C. (Courtesy: Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay) 169
v1.c6.82
79. A seal from Lothal with a picture of a seed-drill (After S. R. Rao) 169
v1.c6.83
80. Furrow marks of ploughed land on the southern side of KLB 2, Kalibangan, Rajasthan (*top*) (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India)
v1.c6.84
The present-day method of ploughing (*bottom*) very much resembles the ancient one 170
v1.c6.85
81. Terracotta toy-carts from Lothal (After S. R. Rao) 171
v1.c6.86
82. A toy-cart from Harappa, with solid wheels (*left, top*), and frame of the toy-cart (*left, bottom*) (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India)
v1.c6.87
The bullock-cart in the present-day Sind (*right*) is not far removed from the Harappan cart 172
v1.c6.88
83. A toy-cart from Mohenjo-daro. It was possibly used for carting manure (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi) 172
v1.c6.89
84. Toys modelled on wild animals, depicting hare, tiger, pangolin, monkey, crocodile and wild boar (After Mackay) 173
v1.c6.90
85. Women pounding barley with wooden pestles in a village home in Haryana. The stone mortar is embedded in the floor. In the fore-ground is a *chhaj* for winnowing husk (Courtesy: H. K. Gorkha, Indian Agricultural Research Institute) 174
v1.c6.91
86. Isometric projections of the great granary, Harappa (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 174
v1.c6.92
87. Carbonized grains of *Cicer arietinum* from a Harappan site, Kalibangan, Rajasthan (*top*). Carbonized grains of *Triticum sphaerococcum* from a Harappan site, Mohenjo-daro, Sind (*bottom, left*). Carbonized grains of *Hordeum* sp., from a Harappan site, Kalibangan, Rajasthan (*bottom, right*) (After Vishnu-Mittre) 175
v1.c6.93
88. A saddle-quern recovered from a Harappan settlement, Sector 17, Chandigarh, *c.* 2200 B.C. (Courtesy: Museum of Rural Life of the Punjab, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana) 175
v1.c6.94
89. A terracotta from Mohenjo-daro, showing a woman kneading flour (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi) 175 90. Carbonized wheat grains from Mohenjo-daro dated to 1755 B.C. by ¹⁴C method. They compare with those of *Triticum sphaerococcum* (Courtesy: Genetics Museum, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi) 176
v1.c6.95
91. Seeds of mustard from Chanhu-daro, Sind (Courtesy: Genetics Museum, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi) 177
v1.c6.96
92. A plant of *Gossypium arboreum* with open bolls. This cotton plant was known to the Harappans (Courtesy: Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi) 178
v1.c6.97
93. Distribution of zebu cattle in the world. The home of the zebu cattle is the Indian sub-continent. It has been recently introduced into Brazil and the southern USA 187
v1.c6.98
94. Seals and toys depicting domesticated animals. *Top row, left and centre, humpless bulls; right, a buffalo. Middle row, left, a humped bull of a breed close to Kankrej of Gujarat; centre and right, bulls with forward-projecting horns, resembling urus (Bos primigenius) of Europe. Bottom row, left, a humpless bull; middle, a humped bull (all from Mohenjo-daro; after Mackay and Vats). Bottom row, right, a humped bull from Sector 17, Chandigarh* 195
v1.c6.99
95. *Top*, a humped bull depicted in seals from Mohenjo-daro. *Bottom*, a Kankrej bull from Kutch, which resembles the bull depicted on the seal above. This breed is also common in the Tharparkar District of Sind (Pakistan). It is the heaviest breed with curved horns and well-developed dewlap. 196
v1.c6.100
96. A Karkrej bull and cow from Kathiawar 197
v1.c6.101
97. The horned humpless bull depicted on a seal from Mohenjo-daro (*top*) resembles the gaur, *Bos gaurus* (*below*) 198
v1.c6.102
98. *Top*, a bull of *Bos primigenius* or aurochs of the late Pleistocene, depicted in the cave of Lascaux, south-west France. *Middle*, the so-called unicorn from Mohenjo-daro also depicts a bull of *Bos primigenius*. It has a manger in front of it, indicating domestication. *Bottom*, the last surviving specimen of aurochs depicted in a picture published in 1827. The aurochs became extinct in Europe in the middle of the nineteenth century (After Zeuner) 199
v1.c6.103
99. Breeds of cattle from Sind. *Top*, a Red Sindhi bull; *bottom*, a Tharparkar bull 200
v1.c6.104
100. *Top*, the Surti buffalo has long and thick horns. *Bottom*, the Murrah buffalo has curled horns and has a high milk yield 201
v1.c6.105
101. The wild buffalo from the Brahmaputra Valley in Assam 202 102. Nagpuri buffalo, with its long horns, is very close to the ancestral buffalo 202
v1.c6.106
103. A buffalo, bronze, Chalcolithic period, *c.* 1300 B.C. Diamabad, Ahmadnagar District, Maharashtra. In the shape of its horns it resembles the wild buffalo below 203
v1.c6.107
104. The Indian wild buffalo is found in Assam. It lives in reeds and rushes close to ponds 203
v1.c6.108
105. Seals from Mohenjo-daro showing elephants. They have a covering of cloth on the back, indicating domestication (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 204
v1.c6.109
106. A herd of hemiones (wild asses) in the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. In the photo below they are galloping to escape human intruders (Courtesy: Chief Conservator of Forests, Gujarat) 204
v1.c6.110
107. *Top*, a camel working a Persian wheel. Blindfolded camels work tirelessly for hours. *Bottom*, camels are also used for threshing sorghum in the desert areas of the Hissar District, Haryana (Courtesy: Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi) 205
v1.c6.111
108. Fish and fishing in the Harappan period. *Top*, a fisherman with net. *Middle*, a fish-toy from Harappa (both after Vats). *Bottom*, a painting on a pot from Nal, showing *Nemachilus*-like fish (After Hora) 206
v1.c6.112
109. Copper fish-hooks from Mohenjo-daro (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 207
v1.c6.113
110. Birds on a cage—a terracotta from Mohenjo-daro (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi) 207
v1.c6.114
111. Domesticated birds from the Harappan period, showing a flying pigeon, a parakeet, a domestic fowl and a chick, a duck, a pigeon, and a woman holding a duck 208
v1.c6.115
112. The red jungle fowl (*Gallus gallus*) is the ancestor of modern poultry 209
v1.c6.116
113. The Indian wild boar (*Sus scrofa cristatus*) in different moods. Kangra drawing, early eighteenth century (Courtesy: Museum of Evolution of Life, Chandigarh) 210
v1.c6.117
114. Schematic section of Burzahom, Kashmir Valley. The lowermost layer has pit dwellings, *c.* 1800 B.C. The menhir marks a burial spot (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 218
v1.c6.118
115. The megalith at Burzahom, Kashmir Valley 223
v1.c6.119
116. Hunters of Burzahom holding a stag at bay. The man with a bow is shooting an arrow, and the one behind is flinging a spear. A dog with tail uplifted is chasing the stag (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 224 117. Bone-tools discovered from Burzahom. The second and fourth from left are needles, and the sixth is a harpoon (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 225
v1.c6.120
118. Polished stone-tools (neoliths) from Burzahom, Kashmir Valley, 1800 B.C. On the top are stone-axes. In the centre is a ring stone and below are a stone-axe and a chopper (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 226
v1.c6.121
119. The Neolithic axe (also called celt or adze), made by the combined techniques of chipping, grinding and polishing, as a sharp convex cutting edge, and the butt end is pointed. These neolithic axes are from different parts of India. The top two are from the villages of Lodhwara, Chakla and Bankat, Karwai Tehsil, Banda District, Uttar Pradesh, collected by A. P. Khatri; the left one in the second row is from a village near Pinjore, Himachal Pradesh; the central axe and the right one on the second row are surface finds from the Raichur District, Karnataka; at the bottom is a chisel from the Raichur District. 227
v1.c6.122
120. Seeds of weeds associated with cultivation, from Neolithic of Burzahom, Kashmir. Left to right: top row, *Lithospermum arvense* and *Ipomoea* sp; bottom row, *Trifolium* sp., *Lotus corniculatus* and *Medicago* sp. (After Vishnu-Mittre) 228
v1.c6.123
121. A stone-axe was reconstructed by mounting the Neolithic flint head on a copy of a Neolithic haft preserved at the bottom of a bog in Denmark. It was found that the full swing of the modern woodsman often chipped or broke the head. Using short, rapid strokes, the experimenters learnt to fell trees having a diameter of more than 30 cm in 30 minutes. To fell small trees, they chopped all the way round the trunk (After Johannes Iversen) 229
v1.c6.124
122. *Top*: Trees were burnt by covering them with brushwood and igniting a 9-metre strip. When the strip was almost burnt out, the larger logs were used to light the next one. *Middle*: The seed was sown (*left*) by hand in the warm ash, and the seedbed was raked with a forked stick (*right*). The plants sown were barley and two primitive varieties of wheat. *Bottom*: Barley had grown to this height six weeks after it had been sown in the ash of the burnt brushwood and trees. Barley sown in pots not covered with ash grew very poorly (After Johannes Iversen) 230
v1.c6.125
123. Geographical distribution of records of millets together with dates in the Indian subcontinent. The earliest record of sorghum is from Inamgaon (Maharashtra), 1370 B.C., that of finger-millet (*ragi*) from Hallur (Karnataka), 1800 B.C., and of pearl-millet (*bajra*) from Ahar, 1720 B.C. (After Vishnu-Mittre)
v1.c6.126
124. Two cultural periods at Paiyampalli, District North Arcot (Tamil Nadu). (i) The Neolithic ground stone-axes, short blades of jasper, agate and chert. (ii) Megalithic iron objects, black and red pottery, tripod burial urn and terracotta lamp with light wicks (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 236
v1.c6.127
125. Foodgrains and timber discovered from Hallur (Karnataka), 1800 B.C. to 870 B.C. (After Vishnu-Mittre) 237
v1.c6.128
126. Foodgrains, fruit and timber discovered from Navdatoli-Maheswar (After Vishnu-Mittre) 242
v1.c6.129
127. *Lens culinaris* (lentil) 244
v1.c6.130
128. Seeds of crops, fruits and timber recovered from Inamgaon (Maharashtra), 1600 B.C. to 1000 B.C. (After Vishnu-Mittre) 246
v1.c6.131
129. Seeds of sorghum, gram and other crops from prehistoric sites. *Top row, left*: *Eleusine coracana*, Hallur, Karnataka, 1800 B.C.; *right*, impressions of *Sorghum* spikelets on a pots-herd from Ahar, Rajasthan. *Middle row, left*: *Sorghum* sp., carbonized grains from a charred mass, Bhatkuli, Maharashtra, fifth century B.C.; *right*, *Dolichos biflorus*, Tekkalakota, Karnataka, 1780 B.C. *Bottom row, left*: *Cicer arietinum*, Bhatkuli, Maharashtra, fifth century B.C.; *right*, carbonized fruits of *Ziziphus nummularia* from Malva-Jorwe site, Inamgaon, Maharashtra (After Vishnu-Mittre) 247
v1.c6.132
130. Finger-millet, or *ragi* (*Eleusine coracana*), is grown in Karnataka as a food crop (Courtesy: Indian Agricultural Research Institute) 248
v1.c6.133
131. Seeds of crops from early historical site of Ter, Osmanabad, Maharashtra. *First row, left*: *Hordeum* sp.; *right*, *Triticum sphaerococcum*. *Second row, left*: carbonized spikelets of rice from a charred mass; *right*, spikelets of *Oryza sativa*. *Third row, left*: *Paspalum scrobiculatum*; *right*, *Pisum sativum*. *Fourth row, left*: *Lens culinaris*; *right*, *Ricinus communis* 249
v1.c6.134
132. Reconstruction of the Chalcolithic village of Navdatoli, *c.* 1550 B.C. The inhabitants of Navdatoli lived in rounded huts raised on thick wooden posts. Around the framework were bamboo screens coated with clay and lime (After H. D. Sankalia) 250
v1.c6.135
133. Life and death at Nevasa, Chalcolithic, *c.* 1300 B.C. In the foreground is a potter's hut. Spouted pot and vessel with flaring mouth are his products. The corpse of a child is being buried enclosed in a pitcher. On a slab are polished stone-axes (Reconstruction by H. D. Sankalia) 251
134. *Antheraea mylitta*, the tussor silk moth (female). Below are the cocoons from which silk is spun out (Courtesy: Indian Silk Board) 252
135. Copper implements from Navdatoli (Madhya Pradesh), 1400 B.C., Nevasa (Maharashtra) and Jorwe (Maharashtra) (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 253
136. Seeds of pulses. *First row: Lens culinaris* and *Vigna radiata*. *Second row: Vigna mungo* and *Cajanus cajan*. *Third row: Lathyrus sativus* and *Cicer arietinum* 254
137. Seeds of crops from Navdatoli-Maheswar. *First row: Triticum aestivum* and *Vigna mungo*. *Second row: Vigna radiata* and *Lens culinaris*. *Third row: Lathyrus sativus* and *Linum usitatissimum*. *Bottom: Pisum sativum* (After Vishnu-Mittre) 255
138. Isometric reconstruction of Chalcolithic village, Inamgaon, District Pune, *c.* 700 B.C. Houses were rounded and had straw roofs supported by wooden poles (After H. D. Sankalia) 256
139. *Sorghum bicolor* 257
140. A bronze chariot with a cult figure, possibly Pasupati, Shiva, from Daimabad, Ahmadnagar District, Maharashtra, of the Chalcolithic period, *c.* 1300 B.C. (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi; Archaeological Survey of India) 258
141. A pot from Inamgaon with engraving of a cart drawn by zebu cattle (After H. D. Sankalia) 258
142. Panicle of sorghum 260
143. Centres of diversity and origin of cultivated plants (general assignment after Vavilov 1935, and Darlington and Janaki Ammal, 1945) 270
144. Geographical distribution of records of rice, together with dates in the Indian subcontinent (After Vishnu-Mittre) 272
145. Polished Neolithic axes from Deojali Hading, North Cachar Hills, Assam. The uppper row contains shouldered ground stone-axes, with rectangular tank. These axes served as hoes for digging the soil (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 275
146. Palaeolithic and Neolithic tools from the Lohit District. In the last row at left is fully ground sandstone Neolithic axe. In the middle is a shouldered axe, with a rounded rectangular section (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 275
147. Spikelets, husks and grains of rice found in an excavation at Hastinapur, Meerut District, Uttar Pradesh (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 276 148. Foodgrains discovered in the excavation at Atranjikhera and Ahar and their age (After Vishnu-Mittre) 274
v1.c6.136
149. The home of the Aryans is southern Russia—the land around the Caspian Sea and Black Sea. From that area they spread to Iran and Asia Minor. From Iran some hordes migrated to India (Courtesy: UNESCO) 279
v1.c6.137
150. Late Pleistocene distribution of the members of the genus Equus (horse). The asses and zebras were confined to Africa and hemiones or half-assess to the Middle East and northern India. There are no overlaps (After Zeuner) 284
v1.c6.138
151a. A terracotta horse, Lothal (Gujarat), *c.* 2000 to 1800 B.C. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 285
v1.c6.139
151b. Clay figure of a horse from Kaiyatha, District Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh, *c* 1700 B.C. (Courtesy : H. D. Sankalia) 285
v1.c6.140
152. Bronze axes with shaft holes recovered from upper layers of Mohenjo-daro, dated to about 1800 B.C. to 1600 B.C., which probably belonged to Aryan invaders from Iran (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 285
v1.c6.141
153. Chariots drawn by horses were commonly used by the nobles in the Buddhist period. Houses were multi-storeyed with wooden balconies. The dress of the people was a dhoti and a turban. Pillar details of East Gate Stupa I, Sanchi, first century (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 286
v1.c6.142
154. Important Painted Grey Ware sites in northern India. In the Punjab, Haryana and western districts of Uttar Pradesh a large number of Painted Grey Ware sites have been discovered. Now the northernmost limit of Painted Grey Ware is Jammu 302
v1.c6.143
155. Painted Grey Ware pots and dish from Hastinapur, 1000 B.C. to 800 B.C. (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi) 309
v1.c6.144
156. Young Hariana bulls at the Hissar cattle farm. The Hariana breed of cattle is associated with the Aryans. It is confined to the Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh where the Aryans settled 309
v1.c6.145
157. Smelting of iron was a major achievement. Iron provided a hard metal from which axes, ploughshares and sickles were fabricated. This led to great progress in agriculture (Reconstruction from the Museum of Evolution of Life, Chandigarh) 310
v1.c6.146
158. The girl is scaring away birds from a pearl-millet field with a sling (Courtesy: Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi) 311
v1.c6.147
159. Black Polished Ware from Yelleswaram, an Iron Age site in Tamil Nadu (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 312
v1.c6.148
160. Iron objects from Megaliths in South India. At the right is a sickle and at the left is a sword. In the middle is an axe with a ring-fastener. At the top is an arrow-head. *c.* 300 B.C. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 312
v1.c6.149
161. A pearl-millet (*bajra*) crop in Rajasthan. The earliest record of pearl-millet in India is from Rangpur, Gujarat, 1100 B.C. to 800 B.C. (Courtesy: Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi) 319
v1.c6.150
162. Barley was a favourite crop of Vedic Aryans, and they called it *yava*. The largest area under this drought-resistant crop is in Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan (Courtesy: Punjab Agricultural University) 320
v1.c6.151
163. India in the sixth century B.C. was divided into sixteen states called Mahajanapadas 324
v1.c6.152
164. The great departure. In the background are several-storeyed buildings. Women seated in wooden balconies watch the procession. North Gate, Stupa I, Sanchi, first century B.C. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 329
v1.c6.153
165a. An illustration to a Jataka story, showing, among others, banana plants (*Musa paradisiaca*) 330
v1.c6.154
165b. Sacred trees of the Buddhists. A, Asoka-tree (*Saraca asoca*; syn. *S. indica*); 2, Banyan (*Ficus benghalensis*); 3, Cluster-fig (*Ficus glomerata*), Bharhut; 4, Lebbeck-tree or *siris* (*Albizia lebbeck*), Bharhut; 5, Sal (*Shorea robusta*), Bharhut; 6, Iron-wool or Nagkesar (*Mesua ferrea*), Bharhut; 7, Pipal (*Ficus religiosa*), Sanchi; and 8, Foliage of pipal, Bharhut (After R. V. Sitholey) 331
v1.c6.155
166. The Buddha subjugates the mad elephant Nalagiri. Women, nude above the waist, watch from the balconies of houses. Amaravati, late second century, Madras Museum (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 333
v1.c6.156
167. Buffaloes muddying a pool. The circular hut in the background resembles the Navdatoli huts. On the left are archers carrying bows. An illustration to a Jataka story, West Gate, Sanchi (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 334
v1.c6.157
168. A bullock-cart, with a pair of bullocks in the foreground. A medallion from Bharhut, 200 B.C. Calcutta Museum (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 343
v1.c6.158
169. Punch-marked silver coins of the Buddhist period. *Top row*, left, Bent bar variety, silver, sixth century B.C.; right, Punch-marked cup-shaped variety, silver, fourth century B.C.;
v1.c6.159
*Bottom row, left*, Punch-marked, silver, third century B.C.; *right*, Silver coin of Sophytes, a prince of the Punjab, the obverse of the coin showing a cock with large spurs. *c.* 300 B.C. (Courtesy : National Museum, New Delhi) 343
v1.c6.160
170. The threshing of wheat near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh. Seven bullocks are tied with a rope to a wooden post (*methi*). They walk around it for hours and thresh out the grain. This is a practice as ancient as the Buddhist period 344
v1.c6.161
171. The winnowing of wheat in Madhya Pradesh 344
v1.c6.162
172. An Aseel cock, a fighting breed of poultry, with large spurs. Deccani, late seventeenth century. Compare with the figure on obverse of silver coin of Sophytes (Fig. 169) (Courtesy: Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay) 367
v1.c6.163
173. Bull capital, Rampurva, Tirhut, Maurya, 240 B.C. Calcutta Museum. The bull represents the Hariana breed. It is symbolic of the importance of cattle in the economy of Mauryan India (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 368
v1.c6.164
174. *Top*, Fragment of a torana architrave showing Gajalakshmi and a Nagori bull, Kausambi, Allahabad District, Uttar Pradesh, first century B.C.; Allahabad Museum *Bottom*, A Nagori bull (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 369
v1.c6.165
175. An illustration to a Jataka story. Keeping the pots hanging from the roof is a custom still followed in India. In front of the hut are two asses (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 370
v1.c6.166
176. Life in an Indian village in the Buddhist period, about 200 B.C. In the foreground are buffaloes, zebu bulls, goats and sheep. In front of the hut women are busy with domestic chores, such as grinding spices, dehusking paddy, and winnowing with a *chaaj*. Sanchi, 200 B.C. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 375
v1.c6.167
177. A replica of the Girnar edict of Asoka, in front of the National Museum, New Delhi. In the edict Asoka states that he planted trees along roadsides (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi) 376
v1.c6.168
178. A map showing Asoka's Empire, 250 B.C. 380
v1.c6.169
179. Fruit-plants shown in sculptures from Bharhut, second century B.C. and Sanchi, first century B.C. 1, Plantain (*Musa paradisiaca*), Sanchi; 2, Mango (*Mangifera indica*), Sanchi; 3, Mango bunch with leaves, Sanchi; 4, Mango fruits and leaves, Bharhut; 5, A parrot carrying a bunch of grapes (*Vitis vinifera*), Sanchi; 6, A grapevine bearing bunches, Bharhut; 7, Jackfruit (*Artocarpus heterophyllus*), Bharhut (After R. V. Sitholey)
v1.c6.170
180. Palms depicted in Buddhist sculptures. 1, Palmyra-palm (*Borassus flabellifer*), Bharhut, second century B.C.; 2, A palm, with a man standing below, Besnagar; 3, Wild datepalm (*Phoenix sylvestris*), Sanchi (After R. V. Sitholey)
v1.c6.171
181. A Yakshi under a mango-tree. Stupa I, Sanchi, first century B.C. (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India)
v1.c6.172
182. A grapevine carved on a fragment of a railing post, Bharhut, Satna District, Madhya Pradesh, second century B.C. (Courtesy: Allahabad Museum)
v1.c6.173
183. Coins and seals with animal and bird motifs from the second century to the tenth century: *Top row, left*, Vasudeva, Kushan, gold, second century; *right*, Chandragupta I, Gupta, gold, fourth century; *Second row, left*, Kumaragupta I, Gupta, peacock type, gold, fifth century; *centre*, a bull, seal, fourth century, Sanghol, Punjab; *right*, Samudragupta, Gupta, gold, fourth century; *Third row, left*, a bull, seal, Gupta period, fifth century, Sanghol; *right*, an elephant trampling a lion, seal, Gupta, sixth century; *Bottom row, left*, Sashanka, King of Gauda (central Bengal), gold, seventh century; *right*, a horse and a bull, Shahi dynasty, Kabul, tenth century (Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi, and Department of Archaeology, Punjab Government).
v1.c6.174
184. A man and a woman feeding a parrot. Below is a blossoming asoka (*Saraca asoca*). Kushan, first century (Courtesy: Mathura Museum)
v1.c6.175
185. Iron agricultural implements excavated from the Bhir mound, Taxila, 300 B.C. to A.D. 100; 182-190 are hoes with chisel-like blades; 191-197 are spuds with broad blades like that of *khurpa*; 198, a true spade; 200-202 are weeding forks; 203-206 are sickles (From Taxila, Vol. III, by Sir John Marshall)
v1.c6.176
186. Pivot stones, querns and mullers, pestles and mortars, grinding mills from the Bhir mound and Sirkap, 300 B.C. to A.D. 100 (From Taxila, Vol. III, by Sir John Marshall)
v1.c6.177
187. A farmer ploughing. The bullocks are of the Hariana breed, and the type of plough is still in use in Maharashtra. Gandhara relief, 200 A.D. (Courtesy: Lahore Museum)
v1.c6.178
188. Plough from Solan, Himachal Pradesh. It resembles the plough shown in the Gandhara relief above
v1.c6.179
189. Iron sickles, diameter 29.2 cm, the iron *bhakhar*, 54 cm in length, 88.9 cm in width, and iron trowels, used as *khurpis*, 200 A.D. (Courtesy: Sanchi Museum)
v1.c6.180
190. *Top*, *Bhakhar* a scraper in common use in the black-cottonsoil areas of Madhya Pradesh; *Bottom*, A closer view of the bhakhar 399
191. Black-pepper (*Piper nigrum*) was the favourite spice of Indians till the Portuguese introduced red-pepper (*Capsicum frutescens*) from Peru, South America, in the sixteenth century. Black-pepper is grown in Kerala, trained on posts of *Erythrina variegata* var. *orientalis* 400
192. Women drying berries of black-pepper in Kerala 400
193. Map showing the Gupta Empire at the close of the fourth century 411
194. Mango, a favourite fruit of the Indians. The couples shown standing below the branches of fruit-bearing mangoes are (*right*) from Badami (A.D. 578) and (*left*) from Pattadakal, Bijapur District, Karnataka, seventh century 447
195. Relief showing the descent of Ganga, Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, Pallava, seventh century. A number of animals, including deer and lions, are shown 448
196. A ship with sails. South Indians sailed in such vessels from India to Java during the Chola period. Borobuddur, Java, eighth century (Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India) 448
197. Krishna milking a cow. Mahabalipuram, Pallava, seventh century. The cow is of the Hallikar breed 449
198. A herd of Hallikar cattle in Karnataka 450
199. Krishna holding the mountain Govardhana. Hoysaleshwara Temple, Halebid, Karnataka, Hoysala, twelfth century. The cattle sheltering under the mountain are of the Hallikar breed 451
200. Sculpture of the Nandi Bull, Mysore. It is based on the Ongole breed of Andhra Pradesh 452
201. An Ongole bull from the Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh, with energetic body, white skin, large dewlap and stumpy horns. 453
202. A panel depicting a Persian wheel from Mandor, Rajasthan, eleventh century. This is the earliest record of a Persian wheel in India. It is pre-Islamic and proves that it is an Indian wheel and not an import from Iran (Courtesy: Jodhpur Museum) 453
203. *Top*, A ploughman. The plough is similar to the Indian *desi* plough. Borobuddur, Java, eighth century; *Bottom*, The plough from Jorhat, Assam resembles the plough shown in the Borobuddur sculpture above 454
204. Map showing the Chola Empire under Kulottunga I, c. 1100 458 the Pope, and the Emperor, and the King of France, and the King of England, were all of them, in their several ways, the instruments of the Almighty in bringing about the great event which we are now to contemplate.
v1.c6.181
The Reformation was not the work of any one man, or of any one country. It was the result of a long series of causes, which had been operating for centuries. The corruption of the Church, the revival of learning, the invention of printing, the discovery of the New World, the rise of a new spirit of inquiry, all contributed to the great change.
v1.c6.182
But, above all, it was the Word of God, which, having been long hidden from the people, was now, by the invention of printing, and by the labours of the Reformers, brought to light, and made the rule of faith and practice.
v1.c6.183
The Reformation was a return to the simplicity of the Gospel. It was a protest against the errors and corruptions which had crept into the Church. It was a struggle for the liberty of the conscience, and for the right of every man to read and interpret the Scriptures for himself.
v1.c6.184
It was a great and glorious work, and it has been the source of innumerable blessings to the world. It has been the means of spreading the knowledge of the truth, of promoting the cause of liberty, and of advancing the interests of civilization.
v1.c6.185
And now, let us proceed to trace the history of this great event, and to see how it was brought about, and what were the consequences which followed from it.
v1.c6.186
We shall see how the truth, which had been so long obscured, began to shine forth with new lustre. We shall see how the power of the Pope was shaken, and how the authority of the Church was brought into question. We shall see how the Reformers, in the face of opposition and persecution, stood firm in their faith, and how they were enabled, by the grace of God, to accomplish the work which they had undertaken.
v1.c6.187
We shall see how the Reformation spread from country to country, and how it influenced the course of history, and how it has left its mark upon the world to this day.
v1.c6.188
And, in doing so, we shall see the hand of God in all these events, and we shall be led to acknowledge that it was He who, in His own good time, and in His own way, brought about this great and glorious reformation of His Church.