A History of Agriculture in India v2.c52: Contents

A History of Agriculture in India v2.c52

Language: English

CHAPTER 1. THE RISE AND SPREAD OF ISLAM . . . . . 1 The Role of the Arab Horse and the Camel; The Caliphate, and the Conquest of North Africa and Spain; The Arab Contribution to Science, Agriculture and Horticulture

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CHAPTER 2. THE ARAB CONQUEST OF SIND . . . . . 10 Ibn Haukal’s Observations on the Country, People and Crops of Sind; Al Idrisi’s Account of Gujarat and Kerala; Land Revenue, Cesses and Taxes in Sind; Eighth Century A.D. to Eleventh Century A.D.

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CHAPTER 3. THE RULE OF THE TURKS . . . . . 16 Mahmud Ghaznavi, Muhammad Ghori, and the Slave Kings; A.D. 998-1290; Incursions of Mongols

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CHAPTER 4. THE RULE OF THE TURKS . . . . . 25 The Khaljis; A.D. 1290-1320; The Price Control Regulations and Revenue Administrative Measures of Ala-ud-din Khalji; Wretched Condition of the Peasantry

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CHAPTER 5. THE RULE OF THE TURKS . . . . . 35 The Tughlaks; A.D. 1321-1325; Ghias-ud-din Tughlak, his Revenue and Postal System

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CHAPTER 6. THE RULE OF THE TURKS . . . . . 38 The Tughlaks; Muhammad-bin-Tughlak; A.D. 1325-1351; Ibn Battuta, the Traveller of Islam; Experiments in Change of Capital, Paper Money; Court Ceremonial, System of Gifts

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CHAPTER 7. URBAN LIFE UNDER THE SULTANATE . . . . . 50 City of Delhi, Urban Social Revolution; Society, Food, Dress, River Transport, Maritime Trade and Culture

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CHAPTER 8. RULE OF MUHAMMED-BIN-TUGHLAK . . . . . 59 The Hindu Peasants, their Habitat, Suttee, Ruin of the Peasantry of the Gangetic Doab; A Scheme for Reclamation of Waste-lands CHAPTER 9. THE SULTANATE 65 Crops, Trees and Fruits; Horse Trade, Coinage, Weights and Prices of Commodities

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CHAPTER 10. FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAK 74 A.D. 1351-1388; Proselytisin to Islam, Reversion to Jagir System, Founding of Hissar, Digging of Western Jamuna Canal; Laying out of Gardens, Prosperity of People

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CHAPTER 11. SULTANATE OF DELHI 83 A. D. 1398-1526; Invasion of Timur; Sayyids and Lodi Afghan Dynasties; Slump in Prices of Foodgrains

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CHAPTER 12. HINDU REACTION TO ISLAMIC MONOTHEISM 88 Rise of Bhakti Cult; Ramanand, Vallabha, Chaitanya and Kabir; Guru Nanak, Prophet and Farmer; A.D. 1398-1538

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CHAPTER 13. THE HINDU EMPIRE OF VIJAYANAGAR 98 A.D. 1336-1646; Irrigation Works, Crops and Domestic Animals

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CHAPTER 14. THE BAHMANI KINGDOM OF THE DECCAN 118 The Sultanates of Deccan, Bengal, Gujarat, Malwa and Kashmir; Canal Irrigation Schemes of Zain-ulabidin in Kashmir Valley; A.D. 1338-1687

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CHAPTER 15. THE RULE OF THE MUGHALS 129 Career of Zehir-ud-din Muhammad Babur; Conquest of Kabul and India; Observations on the Country, Villages and Peasants of India in the Babur-nama; A.D. 1483-1530

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CHAPTER 16. GARDENS OF BABUR IN KABUL AND INDIA 137 Observations on Fruits and Flowers in the Babur-nama

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CHAPTER 17. OBSERVATIONS OF BABUR ON THE ANIMALS AND 153 BIRDS OF INDIA

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CHAPTER 18. THE RULE OF THE MUGHALS 165 Humayun; A.D. 1530-1540 and A.D. 1555-1556; Administration, the Founding of Dinpanah; Exile in Iran and Import of Irani Artists

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CHAPTER 19. AN AFGHAN INTERLUDE 168 Rule of Sher Shah Suri; A.D. 1540-1545; Reform of Land Revenue Administration; Protection of Cultivators; Construction of Roads and Sarais CHAPTER 20. QUEST FOR SPICES 176 Portuguese Advances in Navigation; Discovery of the New World; Portuguese in India; Introduction of the New World Plants in India by the Portuguese; A.D. 1498-1580

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CHAPTER 21. AKBAR THE GREAT 191 A.D. 1555-1605; Companions and Advisers of Akbar—Faizi and Abu-l Fazl; Liberal Treatment of Hindus, Building of Fatehpur Sikri; Rise of a New Architecture and Mughal Painting; A Scientific Enquiry into Religions

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CHAPTER 22. ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS OF AKBAR 201 Todar Mal’s Land Revenue Regulations; Administrative Divisions, Village Administration; Needy Peasants and Small Holdings

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CHAPTER 23. CROPS, AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS, FORESTS AND FISHERIES IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 211

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CHAPTER 24. GARDENS OF AKBAR 218 Flowering Trees, Shrubs and Climbers in Mughal Gardens

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CHAPTER 25. FRUITS AND VEGETABLES GROWN IN INDIA DURING THE REIGN OF AKBAR 226

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CHAPTER 26. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 233 Elephants

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CHAPTER 27. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA IN THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES 240 Horses, Mules, Asses, Camels, Cows, Buffaloes, Goats and Sheep

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CHAPTER 28. JAHANGIR, THE NATURALIST 252 Pelsaert’s Account of City of Agra; Jahangir’s observations on Birds and Animals; Introduction of the Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) in India; Ravages of Plague; A.D. 1616-1624

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CHAPTER 29. OBSERVATIONS OF JAHANGIR ON FRUITS AND FLOWERS 261 Horticultural Plants of Agra and Kashmir; Jahangir’s Gardens in Punjab and Kashmir

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CHAPTER 30. SHAH JAHAN 273 A.D. 1628-1658; The Age of Grandeur; Construction of Red Fort, Jama Masjid and the City of Shahjahanabad; Gardens in Kashmir and Punjab; Digging of West Jamuna and Hasli Canals

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CHAPTER 31. CROPS IN INDIA IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 280 Cultivation of Jute; Spread of Tobacco Cultivation; Observations of Francisco Pelsaert, Francois Bernier and Niccolao Manucci on the Crops and Fruit Plants

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CHAPTER 32. TRADE, COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 293 Imports and Exports, Pilgrimages; Modes of Travel and Sarais in the Seventeenth Century

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CHAPTER 33. THE RULE OF AURANGZEB AND SUCCESSORS 303 A.D. 1658-1748; Murshid Quli Khan's Revenue System in Deccan; Famine in northern India, Plague in Deccan, Earthquake in Delhi; Construction of Eastern Jamuna Canal by Muhammed Shah

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CHAPTER 34. INCREASED BURDEN OF TAXATION ON PEASANTS 311 Miserable Condition of Peasants, Peasant Revolts, Jats and Satnamis

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CHAPTER 35. MAHARASHTRA, THE MARATHA COUNTRY 318 The Marathas, Sivaji, an Outstanding Leader; The Maratha Revolt, its Cultural and Economic Causes; Failure due to a Poor Agricultural Base

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CHAPTER 36. RISE OF SIKHISM 326 Martyrdom of Guru Arjan, Sikhs become Millitant; Role of Khatris and Jats in Sikhism, Martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadur; Guru Gobind Singh and the Creation of the Khalsa; Revolt of Banda Bahadur and his Land Reforms in the East Punjab; Guerrilla Warfare and the Rakhi system

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APPENDIX, CHRONOLOGY OF DYNASTIES, KINGS AND CHIEF EVENTS IN THE MEDIAEVAL PERIOD 334

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1. The Arab Empire was at its maximum extent in the 9th century A.D. 4

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2. India at the death of Mahmud Ghaznavi, 1030. Chola kings ruled South India. Rest of India was ruled by Rajput dynasties. 20

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3. The Mongol Empire in 1290 (shown in white). It embraced China, Central Asia, Iran, Iraq and a good bit of Russia. The principal trade routes between China and Europe are shown. 23

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4. The Tughlak empire in 1351 at the death of Muhammed Tughlak. 48

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5. The Western Jamuna Canal was constructed by Firoz Tughlak. It was aligned along the neglected beds of rivers. 79

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6. The extent of the Sultanate of Delhi in 1398 and the route of Timur's invasion of northern India. 84

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7. Krishna and Balarama having a feast in the forest with cowherds. Food is served in leaf cups of *Butea monosperma*. Kangra painting, 18th century. 89

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8. Balarama diverting the Jamuna with his plough. Balarama is also called Haldhar, or bearer of the plough. Kangra painting, 18th century. 90

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9. Kabir working on a loom. Mughal, 17th century. 91

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10. ‘As rotate the buckets hung on the chain of the Persian wheel, one being emptied and the other being filled, so is the play of God’, said Guru Nanak. Guler, 1810. 92

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11. Village of Hampi at the site of the ancient city of Vijayanagar. 101

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12. Vitthalasvami temple at Hampi. *Mandapa* and stone processional car, Vijayanagar, 16th century. 101

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13. A Hallikar bull. Hallikar is the best draft breed in India and it enjoyed patronage of the rulers of Vijayanagar. 102

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14. A Nellore ram from Tamil Nadu. The Nellore is the tallest breed of sheep in India. 102

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15. Sculpture reliefs on the plinth of Vitthalasvami temple, Hampi, showing hunting scenes. Hunters are shooting arrows at flocks of deer. In the third panel a man on horseback is fighting a lion. The fifth panel depicts dancers. 111

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16. Throne platform reliefs, Vijayanagar, 16th century. Elephants are shown in the first two panels. The first panel shows an encounter between a lion and an elephant. The fourth panel shows horses being led by grooms, walking, prancing and galloping. The last two panels showing camels are from the plinth of Vitthalasvami temple. 112

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17. India in 1525. The Lodi Empire embraced the Indo-Gangetic plain. In the south was the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar. The Deccan was ruled by five Sultans; Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat and Kashmir were independent Sultanates. 112

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18. The wooden Persian wheels with baked earthen water pots are still in use in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. This photograph shows a Persian wheel near Khajuraho, Chhatarpur District, Madhya Pradesh, 1978. 141

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19. Charsa, a leather bucket pulled by bullocks with the aid of a pulley, is still in use for irrigation in Gurgaon District of Haryana, 1978. 142

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20. Bagh-e-wafa, the garden planted by Babur near Kabul in which he planted oranges and pomegranates. On the top sugarcanes and plantains are depicted. These were introduced by Babur from Lahore. From the Babur-nama. 143

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21. Bagh-e-wafa. On the top a wooden Persian wheel is shown. In the garden oranges, pomegranates, plantains, cypresses and keora are depicted. An illustration to the Babur-nama. Mughal, 1597. Artist: Bhagwan. 144

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22. An illustration of jaman (Syzygium cumini) and kamrak (Averrhoa carambola) from the Babur-nama. Mughal, 1597. 145

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23. Paniala (Flacourtia jangomas) and chironji (Buchanania lanzan) trees. From the Babur-nama. Mughal, 1597. 146

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24. Sadaphal (Citrus maxima) or chakotra on the top. Below is amarphal (C. aurantium). From the Babur-nama. Mughal, 1597. 147

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25. Illustrations of jack-fruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), keora (Pandanus odoratissimus) and oleander (Nerium odorum). From the Babur-nama. Mughal, 1597. 148

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26. Babur hunting rhinos near Peshawar. From the Babur-nama, Mughal, early 17th century A.D. 157

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27. Babur hunting. From the Babur-nama. Mughal, early 17th century A.D. 158

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28. Squirrels playing on a tree. Below a peacock and a hen, and sarus cranes. From the Babur-nama. Mughal, 1597. 159

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29. A hunter netting birds. In the foreground are sarus cranes, pelicans and wild ducks. To the left a pair of hoopoes. In the net a falcon. From the Babur-nama. Mughal, 1597. 160

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30. Crops introduced by the Portuguese into India. 1. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), 2. Chillies (Capsicum annuum), 3. Potato (Solanum tuberosum), 4. Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), 5. Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus). 185

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31. Fruit plants introduced by the Portuguese into India. 1. Chiku (Manilkara kauki; syn. Achras zapota), 2. Custard apple (Annona squamosa), 3. Pineapple (Ananas comosus), 4 Cashew-nut (Anacardium occidentale), 5. Chiku, showing fruits. 186

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32. The Mughal Empire on the death of Akbar in 1605. 189

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33. Portrait of Akbar. Mughal, 17th century. 199

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34. Farmers threshing and winnowing grain. Mughal, c. 1600. 200

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35. A gardener digs with a spade. In the background is a reservoir flanked by irrigation channels. Mughal, 16th century, from Diwan-i-Anwari. 221

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36. An illustration to a stanza in Bihari Sat Sai shows an eighteenth-century kitchen. Note the brinjals (Solanum melongena), a favourite vegetable of India. Kangra, 18th century. 222

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37. Some of the vegetables grown in the reign of Akbar, mentioned in the Ain-i-Akbari. i. Surans, Zamin-kand (Amorphophallus campanulatus) ii. Kachalu (Colocasia esculenta) iii. Singhara (Trapa bispinosa) iv. Adrak, ginger (Zingiber officinale) v. Parval, snake-gourd (Trichosanthes anguina) 231

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38. Some of the vegetables grown in the reign of Akbar, mentioned in the Ain-i-Akbari. i. Baingan, eggplant (Solanum melongena) ii. Karela, bitter-gourd (Momordica charantia) iii. Khira, cucumber (Cucumis sativus) iv. Kaddu, pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima) v. Petha (Benincasa hispida) Note the absence of cabbages and cauliflowers, which were introduced by the British in the eighteenth century. 232

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39. ‘Elephant is one of the distinctive animals of India. Indians call it hathi. It is found in the province of Kalpi.’ An illustration to the Babur-nama, 1597. 241

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40. Catching elephants in Terai. Frightened by the sound of drums and pipes, the elephants rush about till they are tired and rest under a tree. Hunters throw ropes round their feet and necks and tie them to trees. Jaipur Artists: Lal, 1750. 242

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41. A Mughal painting showing elephants and camels fighting and men wrestling. c. 1600. 243

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42. Hazaras paying tribute to Babur. It includes sheep, a buffalo and gaini cows. An illustration to the Babur-nama, 1597. 241

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43. Kankrej bullocks are fast like horses. They were used for hauling supplies in the Mughal army. 249

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44. Sketches of goats and a markhor. Mughal, 17th century. 249

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45. A ram of Marwari breed of sheep, possibly by Mansur. Mughal, 17th century. 250

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46. Jahangir hunting a blue bull (nilgai). Mughal, c. 1610. 253

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47. A Turkey cock. Mughal, c. 1612. 254

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48. 1. A cock. Mughal, 17th century. 259
2. Asil cock.
3. Cassowary, Mughal, 17th century.
4. Falcon, c. 1619.

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49. A zebra by Mansur. Mughal, 17th century. 260

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50. A yak, painted probably by Mansur, the chief artist of Jahangir, who specialized in painting animals, birds and plants. Mughal, 17th century. 260

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51. A kos-minar near Ludhiana, 1980. Such minars were constructed at a distance of a kos (about 2.3 kilometres, or 2 miles) along the Grand Trunk Road from Lahore to Delhi by Jahangir. In the niches oil lamps were lighted at night to guide the travellers. 263

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52. The Shalimar garden, Srinagar, was laid by Jahangir in 1619. Ladies Section of this garden is shown in this photograph. 264

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53. The Nishat garden was laid out by Asaf Khan, brother of Nur Jahan, on the shores of the Dal Lake, Srinagar. Its twelve terraces rise dramatically higher and higher to the mountain-side. 267

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54. Shah Jahan in a garden. Late seventeenth century. 268

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55. The Shalimar Garden, Lahore. 277

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56. Tobacco crop was introduced into Andhra before 1600 and had become a significant crop into that region by 1620. 278

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57. By the middle of the eighteenth century pineapple cultivation spread in Bengal. 278

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58. Mohammad Shah smoking a hookah by a lotus pond. Mughal, c. 1740. 283

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59. In the eighteenth century the habit of smoking spread in India. Even ladies smoked. In this painting from Guler, c. 1760, a Rajput princess is shown smoking a hookah. 284

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60. A flowering branch of indigo (Indigofera tinctoria). A flower is on left and pods on the right. 285 62. The fruits of jack-fruit (*Artocarpus heterophyllus*) are borne in clusters on the stem. 290

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⁶¹ A portrait of Francois Bernier in a contemplative mood. Mughal, c. 1662. 289

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63. The flowers of coconut are enclosed in a sheath about a cubit long. 295

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64. The coconut sheath opens and the flowers appear like a bundle of brooms. 295

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65. Weighing and transport of almonds at Kand-i-Badam, from the *Babur-nama*. Mughal, 1597. 296

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66. A chief travelling on a pilgrimage accompanied by retainers. Note different modes of transport. Mawar, *c.* 1750. 301

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67. A *sarai* at Shambhu near Sarhind, Punjab, possibly built by Sher Shah (16th century). It is like a fortress with crenellated walls and towers at the corners. At the entrance and exit are two massive gates. 302

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68. The eastern entrance gate of *sarai* at Shambhu. At the sides are cells in which the travellers rested at night time. 302

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⁶⁹ A woman making *chapaties* for travellers in *sarai*. Mughal, *c.* 1750. 305

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⁷⁰ Aurangzeb receiving the sword of Alamgir, Mughal, *c.* 1658. 306

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The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.

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These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.

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The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.

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By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.

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The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.