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A History of Agriculture in India v2.c81: Chapter 29. Observations of Jahangir on Fruits and Flowers

A History of Agriculture in India v2.c81

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English

Contents

Chapter 29. Observations of Jahangir on Fruits and Flowers

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HORTICULTURAL PLANTS OF AGRA AND KASHMIR

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JAHANGIR'S GARDENS IN PUNJAB AND KASHMIR

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JAHANGIR was the greatest builder of gardens in India. The famous gardens of Kashmir, Shalimar, Achhabal and Verinag owe their existence to him. The garden at Wah near Hasan Abdal in Pakistan was also created by him. He also built the garden tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah (his father-in-law) at Agra, and the Dilkusha garden at Lahore.

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As he spent most of his time in the Punjab, he improved the roads. On the road from Agra to Lahore, he set up a pillar at every three kos and a well at every kos. These pillars are called kos-minars and can still be seen along the Grand Trunk Road (Fig. 51). Shady trees were planted on both sides of the road. He also repaired the roads from Poonch to Kashmir. The stages on the roads were well provisioned and protected.¹

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¹ Narang, K. S. and Gupta, H.R. History of the Punjab, 1496-1857, p. 179

Fruits and Flowers of Agra

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Describing the fruits and flowers of Agra, Jahangir observes, 'Melons, mangoes, and other fruits grow well in Agra and its neighbourhood. In the reign of my father many fruits of other countires, which till then were not to be had in India, were obtained there. Several sorts of grapes, such as the sahibi and the kishmishi, became common in several towns; for instance, in the bazars of Lahore every kind and variety that may be desired can be had in the grape season. Among fruits, one which they call ananas (pineapple), which is grown in the Frank ports, is of excessive fragrance and fine flavour. Many thousands are produced every year now in the Gul-afshan garden at Agra.

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'Of all the fruits I am very fond of mangoes,' states Jahangir. 'Mangoes used not to be in season in the country of Hindustan after the month of June-July (but Muqarrab Khan had established gardens in the parganah of Kairana, which is the native place of his ancestors, and looked after the mangoes there in such a manner as to prolong the season for more than two months, and sent them every day fresh into the special fruit store-house. As this was altogether an unusual thing to be accomplished, it has been recorded here).

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'On the same day they had brought to my private fruit-house many mangoes from all parts of the province of the Deccan, Burhanpur, Gujarat, and the parganahs of Malwa. Although this province is well known and celebrated for the sweetness, freedom from stringiness, and size of its mangoes, and there are few mangoes that equal its mangoes—so much so that I often ordered them to be weighed in my presence, when they were shown to come to a ser or 1¼ ser or even more—yet in sweetness of water and delicious flavour and digestibility the mangoes of Chapramau, in the province of Agra, are superior to all the mangoes of this province and of all other places in India.'

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He also mentions a variety of grapes known as *fakhri*, grown in Ahmadnagar. 'Although they are not as large as the Kabul *fakhri*, they do not yield to them in sweetness,' he remarks.

Imported Fruits

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Fruits were also imported from Afghanistan, Central Asia. Jahangir states, 'At the same stage they brought many melons grown in Kariz near Herat. In former years they had never brought melons in such abundance. On one tray they brought many kinds of fruit—Kariz melons, melons from Badakhshan and Kabul, grapes from Samarkand and Badakhshan, apples from Samarkand, Kashmir, Kabul, and from Jalalabad, which is a dependency of Kabul, and pineapple, a fruit that comes from the European ports, plants of which have been set in Agra. Every year some thousands are gathered in the gardens there which appertain to the private domains. Together with these there came oranges (*kaunlā*) from Bengal, and though that place is 1,000 *kos* distant most of them arrived quite fresh. As this is a very delicate and pleasant fruit, runners bring by post as much as is necessary for private consumption, and pass it from hand to hand.'²

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² Rogers, Alexander (tr.), Beveridge, Henry (ed.). *The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri or Memoirs of Jahangir*, pp. 350, 422, 423

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Terry, an English traveller, writes, 'The country was abounding with musk-melons. One could also find water-melons, pomegranates, lemons, oranges, dates, figs, grapes, coconuts, plantains, mangoes, pineapple, pears, apples, etc.' Terry also mentions the use of coffee by some people. He writes, 'Many religious people drank a "wholesome liquor" which they called coffee. Black seeds were boiled in water, which also became black. It altered the taste of water very little. It quickened the spirit and cleansed the blood.'³

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³ Ansari, Mohammad Azhar. *European Travellers under the Mughals*, 1580-1627, p. 175

Fragrant Flowers of India

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In his preference for fragrant flowers, Jahangir was truly Indian in taste. The following passage from the *Tuzk* shows he was familiar with nearly all the important fragrant plants of India. "From the excellences of its sweet-scented flowers one may prefer the fragrances of India to those of the flowers of the whole world. It has many such that nothing in the whole world can be compared to them. The first is the champa (Michelia champaca), which is a flower of exceedingly sweet fragrance; it has the shape of the saffron-flower, but is yellow inclining to white. The tree is very symmetrical and large, full of branches and leaves, and is shady. When in flower one tree will perfume a garden. Surpassing this is the keora flower (Pandanus odoratissimus). Its shape and appearance are singular, and its scent is so strong and penetrating that it does not yield to the odour of musk. Another is the rae bel, which in scent resembles white jasmine. Its flowers are double and treble (?). Another is the mulsari (Mimusops elengi). This tree, too, is very graceful and symmetrical, and is shady. The scent of its flowers is very pleasant. Another is the ketaki (Pandanus), which is of the nature of the keora but the latter is thorny, whereas the ketaki has no thorns. Moreover, the ketaki is yellowish, whereas the keora is white. From these two flowers and also from the chambeli (Jasminum officinale forma grandiflorum), which is the white jessamine of wilayat (Persia or Afghanistan), they extract sweet-scented oils.'

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FIG. 51. A kos-minar near Ludhiana, 1980. Such minars were constructed at a distance of a kos (about 3.2 kilometres, or 2 miles) along the Grand Trunk Road from Lahore to Delhi by Jahangir. In the niches oil lamps were lighted at night to guide the travellers.

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FIG. 52. The Shalimar Garden, Srinagar, was laid out by Jahangir in 1619. The Ladies Section of this garden is shown in this photograph.

Otto of Roses

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The mother of Nur Jahan is credited with the discovery of otto of roses. How this discovery was made by accident is thus described by Jahangir. 'This' itr is a discovery which was made during my reign through the efforts of the mother of Nur-Jahan Begam. When she was making rose-water a scum formed on the surface of the dishes into which the hot rose-water was poured from the jugs. She collected this scum little by little; when much rose-water was obtained a sensible portion of the scum was collected. It is of such strength in perfume that if one drop be rubbed on the palm of the hand it scents a whole assembly, and it appears as if many red rosebuds had bloomed at once. There is no other scent of equal excellence to it. It restores hearts that have gone and brings back withered souls. In reward for that invention I presented a string of pearls to the inventress. Salima Sultan Begam was present, and she gave this oil the name of itr-i-Jahangiri.'

No Tax on Gardens

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Growing of fruit plants is costly. The upkeep of a garden involves intensive labour and manuring. Fruit plants are also subject to many hazards. Wind storms cause havoc in mango gardens. One day you find mango trees laden with fruit. Next day a wind storm comes and the trees are bare. Rain on flowering peaches, pears, plums and oranges in the month of March will wash away the pollen and fruit would not set. Knowing the problems of gardens and gardeners, Jahangir did not tax them. In the Tuzk, he narrates the following anecdote about a king and a gardener.

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A King came to the gate of a garden in the heat of the day. He saw an old gardener standing at the gate, and asked him if there were any pomegranates in the garden. He said: "There are." He told him to bring a cup of pomegranate juice. The gardener had a daughter adorned with grace of person and beauty of disposition. He made a sign to her to bring the pomegranate juice. The girl went and at once brought a cup full of pomegranate juice, and placed some leaves upon it. The King took it from her hand and drank it. Then he asked the girl what was her reason for placing leaves on the top of the juice. She, with an eloquent tongue and a sweet voice, represented that it was not wise at once to drink off a quantity of liquid when he was bathed in perspiration, and in such a hot air. On this account she had placed the leaves on the liquid by way of precaution, so that he might drink it slowly. The King was greatly pleased with her sweet ways, and it crossed his mind to admit the girl into his Palace. After this he asked the gardener: "How much profit do you derive from this garden every year?" He answered: "Three hundred dīnārs." The King asked: "What do you pay the Diwan (tax-collector)?" He answered: "The King takes nothing from the trees, but takes a tenth of the cultivated crops." It came into the King's mind that there were in his dominions many gardens and countless trees. If he were to get a tenth of the garden produce as well, it would amount to a large sum, and there would be no great loss to the cultivator. Hereafter he would order a tax to be levied on garden produce. He said then: "Bring me a little more pomegranate juice." The girl went, and after a long time brought small quantity. The King said: "The first time thou camest quickly, and broughtest more. This time thou didst stay a long time, and broughtest less." The girl said: "The first time I had filled the cup with the juice of one pomegranate, and brought it; this time I pressed out five or six pomegranates and did not get as much juice." The astonishment of the King increased. The gardener represented: "The blessing of produce depends on the goodwill of the King. It occurs to me that you must be a king. At the time when you inquired of me the income from the garden, your disposition must have changed. Consequently the blessing passed away from the fruit." The Sultan was impressed, and drove that idea out of his heart. He then said: "Bring me once more a cup of pomegranate juice." The girl went again, and quickly bringing a cup full to the brim, gave it, smiling and gladly, into the Sultan's hand. He praised the intelligence of the gardener, and explained the actual state of affairs, and begged the girl of him in marriage, and married her.

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This true tale of that truth-preserving King has remained as a memento on the page of time. In truth, the manifestation of such spiritual (?) results is the mark of good intentions, and the fruit of justice. Whenever all the energies and purposes of justice-observing Kings are devoted to the comfort of the people and the contentment of their subjects, the manifestations of [Figure: FIG. 54. Shah Jahan in a garden. Late seventeenth century. (Courtesy: Indian Museum, Calcutta)]

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FIG. 53. The Nishat Garden was laid out by Asaf Khan, brother of Nur Jahan, on the shores of the Dal Lake, Srinagar. Its twelve terraces rise dramatically higher and higher to the mountain-side.

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well-being and the productions of fields and gardens are not far off. God be praised that in this age-enduring State no tax has ever been levied on the fruit of trees, and is not levied now. In the whole of the dominion not a *dam* on this account enters the public treasury, or is collected by the State. Moreover, there is an order that who ever makes a garden on arable land, its produce is exempted.⁴

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⁴ Rogers, Alexander (tr.), Beveridge, Henry (ed.), *The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri* or *Memoirs of Jahangir*, pp. 52, 53

Flowers and Fruits of Kashmir

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Jahangir was fond of natural scenery and was enchanted by Kashmir Valley. 'Kashmir is a garden of eternal spring,' he observes, 'a delightful flower-bed, and a heart-expanding heritage for dervishes. Its pleasant meads and enchanting cascades are beyond all description. There are running streams and fountains beyond count. Wherever the eye reaches, there are verdure and running water. The red rose, the violet, and the narcissus grow of themselves; in the fields, there are all kinds of flowers and all sorts of sweet-scented herbs more than can be calculated. In the soul-enchanting spring the hills and plains are filled with blossoms; the gates, the walls, the courts, the roofs, are lighted up by the torches of banquet-adorning tulips. What shall we say of these things or of the wide meadows and the fragrant trefoil?

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'The finest inflorescence is that of the almond and the peach. Outside the hill-country the commencement of blossoming is the 1st Isfandārmuz (10 February). In the territory of Kashmir it is the 1st Farwardin (10 March), and in the city gardens it is the 9th and 10th of that month, and the end of their blooming joins on to the commencement of that of the blue jasmine. In attendance on my revered father I frequently went round the saffron fields, and beheld the spectacle of autumn. Thank God that on this occasion I beheld the beauties of spring. The beauties of autumn shall be described in their place. The buildings of Kashmir are all of wood; they make them two-, three-, and four-storied, and covering the roofs with earth, they plant bulbs of the *chaughashi* tulip, which blooms year after year in the spring season, and is exceedingly beautiful. This custom is peculiar to the people of Kashmir. This year, in the little garden of the palace and on the roof of the chief mosque, the tulips blossomed luxuriantly. There are many blue jasmines in the gardens, and the white jasmines. I saw several sorts of red roses; one is specially sweet-scented, and another is a flower of the colour of sandal (light yellow), with an exceedingly delicate scent. It is of the nature of the red rose, and its stem is like that of the red rose. There are two kinds of lilies. That which is grown in gardens is vigorous (*balida*) and fresh-coloured (lit. green); the other is a wild kind. Although the latter has less colour it is very sweet-scented. The flowers that are seen in the territories of Kashmir are beyond all calculation. Those that Nadiru-'asri Ustad Mansur has painted are more than 100. Before my father's time there were no *shāhālu* (cherries). Muhammad Quli Afshar brought them from Kabul and planted them, and there are now ten or fifteen fruit-bearing trees. There were also some apricot-trees. The aforesaid made them known in this country, and now there are many of them. In fact, the apricot of Kashmir is good. There was a tree in the Shahr-ara garden at Kabul, called Mirza'i, better fruit than which I had not eaten, but in Kashmir there are trees equal to this in the gardens. There are pears (*nashpati*) of the best kind, better than those of Kabul, or Badakhshan, and nearly equal to those of Samarkand. The apples of Kashmir are celebrated for their goodness. Grapes are plentiful, but most of them are harsh and inferior, and the pomegranates are not worth much. Water-melons of the best kind can be obtained. The melons are very sweet and creased, but for the most part when they become ripe a worm is found in them that spoils them.'

Produce of Kishtwar

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Apart from Kashmir valley, Jahangir also made observations on the produce of Kishtwar.

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'In Kishtwar there are produced much wheat, barley, lentils, millet, and pulse. Differing from Kashmir, it produces little rice. Its saffron is finer than that of Kashmir. About a hundred hawks and falcons are caught there annually. Oranges, citrons, and water-meons of the finest kind are obtained. Its melons are of the same kind as those of Kashmir, and other fruits, such as grapes, apricots, peaches, and sour pears, are grown. If they were cultivated, it is possible they would improve.'

Char-Chenars

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Apart from planting gardens, Jahangir with his scientific mind also popularized the device of *char-chenars* or planting four *chenars* at the corners of a square, so that there may always be shade at the centre. Such green rooms are found on the caravan routes in Kashmir Valley, and provided shade and shelter to travellers and merchants.

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Jahangir was fond of cherries, grapes and musk-melons which were brought to him from far-off Kabul. Like a true gardener he felt special pleasure in tasting home-grown fruits. 'There was a young plant in the little garden of *Ishrat-afza* (joy-enhancing),' he remarks 'and this I called *Nau-bar* (new fruit). Every day I plucked with my own hand sufficient to give a flavour to my cups. Although they sent them by runners from Kabul as well, yet to pick them oneself from one's home garden gave additional sweetness.

Gardens of Jahangir

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Jahangir laid out the Shalimar garden at the site of the villa of Pravar-Sena II (79-139 A.D.), the founder of the city of Srinagar, in 1619. Connecting the garden with the water of the Dal lake is a canal about twelve yards (11 m) broad. On each side are green paths shaded by giant *chenars*. Fields of narcissus and tulip provided an enchanting feast of colours. The garden is divided into three parts, the outer garden, the central or Emperor's garden, and the inner ladies' garden (Fig. 52). The outer garden was open to the public and terminates at the large pavilion, the Diwan-i-am. The Emperor's garden consists of two shallow terraces with the Hall of Private Audience at the centre. This building has suffered the ravages of time and no longer exists. The snows of Mahadeo provide a sublime and grand background to the pavilion in the ladies' garden. Mrs Villiers Stuart comments that ‘a subtle air of leisure and repose, a romantic indefinable spell, pervades the Shalimar with its dim vistas, smooth sheets of falling water and canals with calm reflections.’ This garden bears an eloquent testimony to Jahangir's sense of landscape and good taste. Shalimar, or the Abode of Love as it means in Sanskrit, draws large numbers of Kashmiris who rest under the *chenars* drinking tea from samovars.

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Nishat, the Garden of Delight, was laid out by Asaf Khan, brother of Nur Jahan. From the shore of the lake its twelve terraces rise dramatically higher and higher to the mountain side (Fig. 53). Each terrace represents a sign of the zodiac. At the head of every waterfall is a stone or marble seat. At the sides are cypresses and *chenars*. Iris, narcissus, daffodils and roses were grown in profusion. Nishat provides a grand view of the lake and mountains.

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Another garden associated with Jahangir is Achhabal near Anantnag. Gushing out of a lime-stone mountain on which a forest of deodars is growing is a spring of clear water which is the life and soul of Achhabal garden. The garden is laid out in terraces and is planted with apple, pear, plum, apricot and cherry. There are also stately *chenars* for shade. A pavilion with rich cedar wood-work presides over the canal, which takes its birth in the mountain-side spring. Near the road-side is a rest house with streams of water flowing through its lawns.

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Verinag, a deep spring, the source of Jhelum, also attracted Jahangir. In 1609 he built an octagonal tank round the spring flanked by twenty-four arched recesses. The emerald-green spring swarms with carps which are regarded as sacred. The water from the spring flows into a canal and at its sides a garden was laid.

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Wah garden at Hasan Abdal near Rawalpindi was built around the springs by Jahangir. This garden palace was used as an Imperial camping ground on the way to Kashmir. Jahangir and Nur Jahan loved the mountains, and every year in summer the whole Court moved to Kashmir from Lahore.

Garden at Sarhind

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One of Jahangir’s gardens was at Sarhind in Punjab. Now it is called Am Khas garden and it is being developed as a tourist centre. Finch, who saw this garden, describes it as follows. ‘At Sarhind there was a fair tank, with a bridge of fifteen stones, to connect the summer house built in the middle of it. From it a small canal was cut for the garden of the Emperor, which was situated at some distance. The way leading to the royal garden was planted on both sides with trees and the garden itself was enclosed with a brick wall. It was planted with all sorts of fruit-trees and flowers, and was rented yearly for Rs 50,000. It was divided into four squares, each a *kos* in length. It was crossed by two main walks, forty feet broad and eight feet high (12.19 m × 2.44 m), with running water in stone channels in the middle of them, and both sides of them were planted thick with fair cypresses. One of these causeways is also paved with pebbles, curiously linter-wrought. At the crossings of the two stood a *mahal* curiously wrought in stone, with fair paintings and rich carvings.’⁵

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⁵ Ansari, Mohammad Azhar, *European Travellers under the Mughals, 1580-1627*, p. 35

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Jahangir was the greatest garden builder in India. The romantic beauty of his Kashmir gardens has contributed enormously to the aesthetic reputation of the Mughals. Wherever he stayed in his tours for any length of time, he left a garden for posterity to admire.

References

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Alvi, M.A. and Rahman, A. *Jahangir—the Naturalist*, N. I. S. I., New Delhi, 1968 Ansari, Mohammad Azhar, *European Travellers under the Mughals, 1580-1627*, Delhi, 1975 Latif, M. *Lahore, its History, Architectural Remains and Antiquities*, Lahore, 1957 Moreland, W.H. and Geyl, P. (tr.). *Jahangir’s India—the Remonstrantie of Francisco Pelsaert* (Indian reprint), Delhi, 1972 Narang, K.S. and Gupta, H. R. *History of the Punjab, 1409-1857*, New Delhi, 1973 Rogers, A. (tr.), Beveridge, H. (ed.). *The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri or Memoirs of Jahangir* (Indian reprint), 1968