History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c15.s1: Bibliography

History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c15.s1

Language: English

Bibliography

The treatise of medicine, next in importance to the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita, in which we can find some chemical informations worthy of note, is Astangahridaya (*lit.* heart or the kernel of the eight limbs or divisions of medicine), due to Vagbhata. As a medical authority Vagbhata was held in high estimation throughout India next to Charaka and Susruta. Vagbhata was Buddhist by religion, as the opening salutation of his treatise, addressed to Buddha or some Buddhistic emblem, clearly reveals. He most probably flourished during the ninth century A.D. (c. 800-850 A.D.).

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Some authors place Vagbhata in the seventh century A.D., but evidences recently gathered on the subject by D. C. Bhattacharyya definitely support the later date.

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Vagbhata is regarded as unrivalled in the principles of medicine (*sutra*). But his treatise may, however, be represented as an epitome of the Charaka and the Susruta with some gleanings from the works of Bhela and Harita. He introduces certain modifications and additions to surgery described in the Susruta. Mineral and natural salts chiefly figure in the prescriptions along with vegetable drugs; mercury is incidentally mentioned, but in such a perfunctory manner as to exclude any assumption about the knowledge of its compounds. Some metallic preparations are, however, recommended in it, which would presuppose an advanced knowledge of chemical processes.

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In a recipe for medicine recommended as an external application for sores the names of the following minerals are found to occur: sulphate of copper, red ochre, realgar, orpiment, sulphate of iron, etc.

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Many preparations of gold, silver, copper, iron, tin and lead have been described.

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In one case direction has been given to roast in a closed crucible (*andhamusha*) a mixture of 64 parts of stibium (*srotonjana*) and one part each of copper, iron, silver, and gold (*Uttarasthanam*, Ch, XIII, p. 20-21).

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In another preparation there is a direction for roasting in a closed crucible a mixture of 30 parts of lead, 5 parts of sulphur, 2 parts of copper and orpiment each, 1 part of tin and 3 parts of stibium. (*ibid*, p. 31-32).

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Vagbhata borrows his method of preparation of alkali almost word for word from the Susruta. The process of rendering mild alkali caustic by the addition of lime has been described in detail as in the Susruta. (*Sutra*, Chap. XXX).

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The only instance in which the mention of mercury occurs is in a recipe given as follows:

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Take equal parts of mercury and lead and make them up into a collyrium with their equal weight of stibium and camphor. (*Uttarasthanam*, Chap. XXX, p. 36).

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CHAPTER VII

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Chemistry in Practical Arts.

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Glass and Pottery

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In this chapter we proceed to deal with the knowledge of chemistry as involved in various practical arts developed by the ancient Indians during the Ayurvedic Period. These include making of glass and pottery, metallurgy and metal working, dyes, paints and colours, perfumes, cements, etc.

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*Glass.* It has been stated before that Kautilya has made mention of glass (*kacha*) beads in connection with some ornamental work with gold (*kshepana*) The Indians of Kautilya's time were, therefore, acquainted with the process of glass-making. Glass (*kacha*) was differentiated from crystal (*sphatika*) as early as in the days of Susruta (Chap. 46). Pliny also referred to the glass of India as superior to all others (Pliny, 36, 66). He further states (37, 20) that "the people of India by colouring crystals have found a method of imitating various precious stones, beryls in particular". Even in certain literary and poetical works of early India, as also in the great epic, Mahabharata, mention of glass is known to occur at many places. In the drama Vasavadatta (6th century A.D ) mention has been made of glass coloured like the neck of peacock. That the art was of still earlier origin in ancient India has now been proved by the recent discovery of the site of an ancient glass factory, believed to be of about fifth century B.C., at Kopia on the bank of river Anoma near Khalilabad in the Basti district of terai region of the Uttar Pradesha. Excavations of the remains of a Buddhistic stupa near the village of Piprahwa in the same district, not far from Kopia, by Mr Peppe in 1897-98 led to the recovery of a steatite casket from the bed of this stupa. The casket was found to contain the relics of Buddha (bones and ashes) together with some small glass beads, pearls, gold and silver leaves, jewelleries, etc. The surface of the casket has an epigraph in Pali language written in Brahmi script. The glass beads found at Kopia bear a striking resemblance to those contained in the Piprahwa casket, in their texture, material, shape, size and execution. As the inscription on the casket indicates its origin sometime in the fifth century B.C., it might be reasonably assumed that the Kopia beads and those of the Piprahwa casket are the products of the same age and the same place.

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M. M. Nagar, who visited the the locality at Kopia in 1949 found countless number of tiny glass beads and glass pieces of various shapes and sizes, scattered all over the place. Fragments of earthen crucibles with glass sticking to the inner side were collected by him. Lumps of glass in various stages of formation and of various colours were noticed. These give some idea of the process adopted for melting, refining and colouring the glass. A block of glass discovered by him was found to weigh about 120 lb. and to have a dimension of 18″ × 19″ × 12″. The block was found to contain some over-burnt brick-bats, used possibly for reinforcement (Figs. 15. *a*, *b*, *c*, *d*. and 16).

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The most striking among the finds are the tiny glass beads perforated with extremely fine holes, difficultly visible to the naked eye. They are brilliantly coloured and highly polished.

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Chemical analyses of some of the Kopia glasses were made by P. Roy of the Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute, Calcutta. The results are quoted in the Table IV.

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The specific gravity of many of these pieces (perforated beads and bangles) was found by the same analyst to vary between 2.33 to 2.68. One characteristic feature of all these pieces is that they are soda-lime glasses containing a high percentage of alumina.

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The use of glass bangles in India was possibly introduced sometime about the 8th-9th century A.D. by foreign tribes like the Huns and Gurjaras coming from Central Asia. Sir Aurel Fig 15 (*a* to *d*) and Fig 16—Through the courtesy of the Director, Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute

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Fig. 15*a*. Glass pieces of different colours (Kopia).

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Fig. 15*c*. Fine perforated coloured beads and glasses (Kopia).

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Fig. 15*b*. Miscellaneous specimens of beads (Kopia).

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Fig. 15*d*. Miscellaneous specimens of beads ( Kopia ).

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Fig. 16. Refractory clay pieces ( Kopia ).

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TABLE IV

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(KOPIA GLASSES)\

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| Sample | Silica SiO₂ | Alumina Al₂O₃ | Ferric oxide Fe₂O₃ | Titania TiO₂ | Lime CaO | Magnesia MgO | Alaklies Nd₂O | Manganese oxide MnO | Total |
| 1. | 62.24 | 8 48 | 7 20 | 0 51 | 3.13 | 1.55 | 16.70 | 0 20 | 100.01 |
| 2. | 70.30 | 5 30 | 1 20 | traces | 2 38 | 1.20 | 19.51 | 0.08 | 99 97 |
| 3. | 64.80 | 7.35 | 0.95 | 0 45 | 3 71 | 2.10 | 20 59 | 0.06 | 100 01 |
| 4. | 67.18 | 7.00 | 1.50 | 0.40 | 3 10 | 1.60 | 19 15 | 0.07 | 100·0 |
| 5. | 66.13 | 7 26 | 0 86 | 0.41 | 2.24 | 1.33 | 21.67 | 0.10 | 100.0 |
| 6 | 63.30 | 7.09 | 2.50 | 1 01 | 3 64 | 1 85 | 20.50 | 0.03 | 99.92 |
| 7. | 66.60 | 6.98 | 1 62 | trace | 2.40 | trace | 21 70 | 0 07 | 99.37 |
| 8 | 60.72 | 10 84 | 0 20 | — | 8.85 | 1.12 | 18.30 | — | 100.03 |

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Stein found some specimens of glass bangles, slightly tinted in various shades of pale green and straw colour, and often ornamented with applied rib-work or cutting.

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Glass beads (0.2"-0.3" dia.) have also been found at Bangarh in the Dinajpore district of Bengal, which may be ascribed as dating from the Mauryan to the Kushan period (i.e. 3rd century B.C. to the 2nd century A.D.). Glass beads and bangles have also been found at Taxila (*vide infra*)

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Coins and Terracotta at Kopia

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A large number of coins and terracotta have also been found at Kopia. The coins were mostly inscribed and they range in date from the third century B C. to the third century A D., representing the Punch-marked, Panchal, Ayodhya, Kosam and Kushan series. The terracottas too belong to the same age. They are mostly modelled, but few were found to be moulded. They are statuettes of human figures

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Pottery

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A number of sites in Northern and North-Central India have produced potteries which belong to the period ranging from the 5th to the 1st century B.C. The wares are of a distinctly highly polished type. Their quality seems to suggest a common cultural origin, and a limited duration. The body consists of a finely levigated clay, usually grey but sometimes reddish in sections This is covered with a brilliantly burnished slip having the quality of a glaze, ranging in colour from jet-black to grey, metallic steel-blue, occasionally varied with reddish brown patches. The wares are readily distinguishable by their brilliance from other polished or graphite-black wares which occur also in South India. The usual forms of the wares are dish and bowls. They have been found in relatively large numbers at 18 different sites, e g. Ahichchhatra, Mathura, Kausambi, Bhita, Sarnath, Rajghat, Jhusi, Masaon, Astranjikheda in the Uttara Pradesha; Patna, Giriak, Rajgir, Buxar in Bihar; Sanchi in Bhopal; Taxila in the Punjab; Bairat in This image is completely blank; there is no text or printed content to transcribe.

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Fig 17. (*Ancient India*, 1946).

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the Jaipur State; Kasrawadh in the Indore State; and at Bangrah in the Dinajpore district of Bengal. These sites are shown in the map (Fig. 17).

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M. Sanaullah, the archæological chemist gives an account of their composition and of the process involved in their making on the basis of his analysis. The black colour is attributed by him to the presence of ferrous oxide (about 13 per cent). The original slip was evidently a highly ferruginous body consisting possibly of a finely levigated mixture of clay and red ochre. This was ground in water and applied to the surface of the vessel before firing. The black colour was developed by the action of reducing gases formed in the kiln. The polishing might have been done before or after the firing. The coating is not a siliceous glaze

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The black polished film has been analysed with the following results: SiO₂, 46.55; FeO, 25.20; Al₂O₃, 15.53; CaO, 4.74; MgO, 3.43; alkalies not determined; H₂O (110°C), 3.45 per cent. (Sanaullah).

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The black colour is evidently due to the formation of ferrous silicate. There is no evidence that it is due to carbon as has been suggested by some.

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According to Sanaullah the presence of lime and magnesia increased the fusibility of the silicate layer of the surface, rendering the latter highly polished and hard. That carbon particles are also deposited in the pores of the wares during burning in a smoky atmosphere, when some tarry matter is condensed on the surface, has been confirmed by him.

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Excavations at Sanchi, Taxila and other places have revealed further informations regarding the character of potteries in India during this period (Mauryan period).

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The polished stone surfaces of many of the Sanchi sculptures are reddened with a translucent stain, which has the advantage of not obscuring the texture of the stone or the delicate details of the carving. At a later date, gateways and railings were covered with a coat of creamy lime followed by a thin red wash, which gave the stone a dull dead appearance. Paintings on walls have been found to be made by mixing red ochre with lime-wash to give red or *geruka* (brownish yellow) colour. Red lead or minium has also been found as an ingredient for the application of red paint.

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At Taxila many pottery specimens of the early age have recently been unearthed. They furnish some ideas about the types of pottery prevalent during the Saka-Parthian and Kushan period (Fig. 18). The findings here consist of a white paste, glass beads and terracotta objects. Majority of the glass beads are of opaque glass and have colours ranging from dark yellow to orange and copper-red. They are disc-like, cylindrical or circular in shape. Some of the beads are also translucent and are of different colours like white, green, blue, purple, white iridescent, etc. Glass bangles, green or blue in colour, generally opaque and rarely transparent, have also been found. Some of these show a chalky coating from the devitrefication of the glass due to atmosphere and subsoil conditions.

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The earliest specimen of true glass in India according to Marshall was found at Taxila in the Bhir mound (circa 5th century B.C.). A few specimens of blown wares in the form of flasks of sea-green or jade-green colour have been found at the Sirkap site belonging to the late Saka-Parthian age (Ist century A.D.). It is, however, believed that they are mostly imported from the West, being typical of late Hellenistic and Roman flasks of blown glass (Fig. 18*a*)

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The pottery at Taxila (of circa 150-200 A.D.) was highly developed and sophisticated as can be judged from the quality and finish of the wares. They are characterised by the frequent employment of utilitarian devices, such as the pinched lips, handles, spouts, etc. There appears to be a predilection for flat and stable bases. With the exception of large storage jars the entire range of the pottery appears to be wheel-turned and made of well-levigated clay of fine or medium grain. The pots were fired in oxidizing conditions and burnt from dull red or greyish red to pink or light red in colour.

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Fig. 18. Potteries from Taxila (*Ancient India*, 1946).

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Fig. 18a. Glass vessels from Taxila (Marshall, *Taxila*, Vol. III, 1951).

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A large majority of types was treated with a red ochreous slip varying in colour from pink through light red to dark red in shade. Decorated pottery formed a small percentage. The decoration consisted of painted, stamped, and neat impressed patterns. The painted decoration is normally in black on a red-slipped ground. The black colouring agent is believed to be magnetite or black oxide of iron, applied in a finely divided state with a brush before firing. The painted designs comprise triangles, loops, festoons, wavy lines, conventional flowers, cocks or peacocks, etc.

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[Figure: Fig. 18b, Potteries from Taxila (Marshall, *Taxila* Vol. III, 1951 ; Plate 125)]

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Special reference may be made here to three specimens of vessels, which were probably used for condensing purposes. These were found in the excavation at the Sirkap site, belonging probably to the late Saka-Parthian periods. They are made of coarse, red, sandy clay with lime and broken bricks. This seems to suggest that the process of distillation and condensation was known to the ancient Indians as early as the beginning of the first century A.D. (*cf.* Fig 18*b* ).

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Certain porcelain-like fragments from Taxila were analysed by the archaeological chemist, M. Sanaullah (1920-21). One of these proved to be a variety of quartz and the other, a kind of white glass. A red opaque glass has also been found at Taxila. The results of his analysis are given below

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| | White opaque glass | Red opaque glass |
| SiO₂ | 61.32 per cent | 37.09 per cent |
| Sb₂O₃ | 5 08 „ | — |
| PbO | — | 34 85 „ |
| Al₂O₃ + Fe₂O₃ | 1 70 „ | 3.16 „ |
| MnO | 0.26 „ | 0 11 „ |
| CaO | 9.74 „ | 6 46 „ |
| MgO | 1.64 „ | 0 70 „ |
| Cu₂O | — | 7.20 „ |
| Na₂O | 19.26 „ | 10.83 „ |
| K₂O | 1.00 „ | 0 87 „ |

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The specimens are obviously soda-lime and soda-lime-lead glasses, with the use of antimony oxide and cuprous oxide for the development of the white and red colour respectively. Other specimens from Taxila were also analysed. The results confirm Pliny's statement that the ancient Indians were acquainted with the art of making glass and colouring it by the addition of metallic salts or oxides.

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Excavations at Ahichchhatra in the Bareilly district in the Uttar Pradesha have also unearthed types of pottery wares belonging to the 3rd century B C. The wares found at the various strata show changes in the type, technique and decorative designs, and have been classified into three main groups, —viz., the early, the intermediate and the later groups. Grey wares predominate in the early group. Some of these have a black slip To this group belong the highly polished black or brown sherds of which the earliest associations at Ahichchhatra have not yet been determined. The black polished type is rare. The vessels of this early group are mostly plain with the exception of a few red wares bearing stamped designs. The group is generally charatcerised by the complete absence of painted decoration of any sort and of any evidence of the use of mould.

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The intermediate group is distinguished by the total disappearance of the grey and black polished wares, the complete absence of the mould technique, and of incised and painted decorations. In these it shares the features of the early group. Decorations were made only by the stamp and consisted mainly of symbols such as are found on Indian coins and sculptures of first century B.C. to the third century A.D. Most of the vessels are found to be devoid of slip or mesh.

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The later group forms a large variety and belongs to the period ranging between 350 and 1100 A.D. The objects show utilitarian devices borrowed from earlier models They are predominantly wheel-made with a fair percentage of mould-made pots They are common red wares with red or reddish slip. Vessels of special types are mica-dusted to impart a lustrous and metallic surface. A fairly large number of specimens shows a polished red surface. Decoration consists mostly of rectilinear or curvilinear geometrical patterns, spirals, zigzags and pendants of various types. They are imprinted by moulds or stamps, or are incised with blunt points. The painted specimens of this group show simple designs of narrow or broad bands in black pigment on red grounds.

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Excavations at Bhita in the U.P. have also disclosed innumerable potsherds and complete vessels of early ages. Primitive wheel-turned vessels and potsherds are of dark grey clay, often covered with a black mucilaginous paint or glaze which gives them a metallic lustre, almost like polished steel. These formed the commonest pottery of the pre-Mauryan period, though also found in the Mauryan and later periods. Other potteries of the age are of the common red- and brown-ware type like wares of the later periods.

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But the best kind of metallic lustre wares, though few in number, has also been found to belong to the Mauryan, Sunga and Andhra periods. The grey wares become less common than in the previous period. The wares of these periods are made mostly of buff with red slips, or of very fine reddish clay with red paints.

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Potteries of the Kushan period found at Bhita are characterised by having bodies of common buff-coloured clay with or without slip. The clay often shows admixture of mica. Water-bottles of fine buff-clay with red paints represent the predominant type.

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Potteries of the closely similar character constitute also the findings belonging to the Gupta period. This type continued practically unchanged even up to the Middle Ages.

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Excavations at Bangarh in the Dinajpur district of Bengal have revealed pottery rings of 2′-5″ in diameter, 8½″ in height and ¾″ in thickness used for the construction of ring-well, which may be ascribed to the Mauryan or early Sunga period Polished black pottery characteristic of this period has also been found in abundance here. Burnt bricks of very large sizes, viz., 16½″-18″ × 9½″-12″ × 2¾″ belonging to the Sunga and Kushan periods (2nd century B.C to 2nd century A D.), and 14″-15″ × 9½″-13″ × 1¾″-9¾″ ascribed to the Gupta period (3rd century to 5th century A.D), used for building purposes, have been found in abundance at Bangarh. Decorative bricks bearing the figures of men, animals, birds, flowers and foliage of sizes 8″-9½″ × 8″ × 2″-2¼″ have been discovered in a large number at a somewhat higher level belonging possibly to the later age, namely, the Pala period. Numerous terracotta objects, beads, plaques, moulds, figurines, toys etc., belonging to the Sunga, the Kushan and the Gupta periods have been unearthed in quantities. Roof-tiles, stamped pottery with designs of lotus and conch-shells and the oval-shaped round-bottomed pottery vases of medium size have also been discovered at a depth which might be ascribed to the Sunga and the Kushan periods. Terracotta and stone beads coated with white paints in designs have been particularly noticed among the findings belonging to the Sunga and the Kushan periods at Bangarh. The paint was probably applied first on the body of the bead and then fixed by heating. *Cf.* Fig. 19.

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Evidences have been found at Bangarh of the use of lime and *surkhi* as a mortar for making rammed concrete on the floor of buildings belonging to the Gupta period.

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Mention may be made in this connection that a variety of stones, e g., carnelian, chalcedony, quartz, agate, jade, jasper and marble, was used for the purpose of making beads, which belonged mostly to the Mauryan, the Sunga and the Kushan periods. —

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Excavations at Arikamedu have revealed specimens of ancient potteries, both imported and local, belonging to the early ages in South India. In fact, Tamil literature and Latin geographers speak of the Indian trade in and after the first century A.D. At its prime it was extensive, India exporting pepper, pearls, gem-stones, muslin, tortoise-shell, ivory and silk, and importing from the West coral, lead, copper, tin, glass, vases, lamps, wine, etc. There were European trading settlements in India in those days and navigational data were collected, as Pliny refers to the monsoon. Archæological evidence seems to point to A.D. 30 as the date of the earliest settlement near Pondicherry at Arikamedu.

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The imported potteries found at Arikamedu are (*a*) Arretine wares from Italy and (*b*) amphorae from Italy or elsewhere in the Mediterranean. The former seems to belong approximately to A.D. 20—50. The lower strata bear local pottery. The date of occupation of the site has been presumed to lie between the end of 1st century B.C. and the beginning of 1st century A.D. The terminal date is believed to be near about A.D. 200. The site was later despoiled for bricks in the Middle Ages. *Cf. Fig.* 20 *a* and *b*.

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Fig 19 Potteries from Bangarh (Goswami, *Excavations at Bangarh*, 1948)

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The imported Arretine wares are red-glazed (sealing-wax red to Indian red—a deep orange red). Some of them are decorated by being pressed into a stamped mould. The sherds are, however, generally undecorated.

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Imported amphorae are mostly oil and wine vessels. Some of the sherds have a pink fabric with yellow slip (150 A.D.).

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Some imported wares have been found to be of black colour with smooth surface. They are thin, brittle and well-burnt.

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The greater part of the pottery is local and, with a few exceptions, wheel-turned. The exceptions include a class of portable ovens, large troughs and storage jars. The normal degraissants are sand and grit, but mica and straw or husk are occasionally used for this purpose. The fabric was usually a porous clay containing a fair amount of sand which burned pink or greyish red to light red under oxidizing conditions of firing and dull grey to greyish black under reducing conditions in the kiln. For a special class of grey or greyish-pink wares a superior quality of clay, free from grit and remarkably fine-grained, was employed. Slips are fairly common and a fair percentage of the pottery was either salt-glazed or treated with a burnished slip. The vast majority of the types are plain and utilitarian in character. Decorated types are rare and decoration is generally simple and primitive in character, the commonest being finger-tip ornament.

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A small percentage of Arikamedu pottery was subjected to inverted firing, i.e., was placed upside down in the kiln with a fair quantity of carbonaceous matter stuffed inside. As a result of the firing the whole of the interior and a portion of the exterior (usually the rim) which came into direct contact with the fuel turned jet-black, and the remaining outer surface became red under oxidizing conditions and grey under reducing-conditions in the kiln. Briefly the former can be called black-and-red ware, and the latter, black-and-grey ware. Very picturesque effects were obtained if the pots were treated with a slip and salt-glazed in course of firing.

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Sherds of Chinese celedon ware have also been picked up at Arikamedu

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The general run of the southern wares is of somewhat coarser fabric; and the very highly polished northern black wares are not found in the south

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General specimens of pottery found at Arıkamedu are glazed, showing the characteristic crackled surface or 'crazing'. The coating of glaze, as pointed out by the archæological survey chemist, does not, however, stand out as a dıstınct layer, and the glazed effect is only superficial. The specimens were probably salt-glazed. Moist salt was very likely thrown into the kiln, when the fuel was almost burnt out. A few potsherds confined to the pre-Arretine and the lowest Arretine layers show a black slip with a striking metallic lustre The particles of the black film were found by the archæological chemist to be magnetic, which on analysis proved to be magnetic oxide of iron. The same chemist also found fine particles of carbon inside the pores of the sherd. It was concluded by him that a slip of ferruginous clay was applied to the ware and it was heated at a moderate temperature in a smoky fire. A polished, bright-red slip is occasionally found at Arıkamedu in potteries of all periods and has been identified as haematite.

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Large scale manufactures of beads of semi-precious stones, as also of glass beads, were made at Arıkamedu. A bead of faience has also been found. The range of colour of the glass beads is limited; shades of blue and green are the most popular colours, followed by copper-red. Less common colours are white and black, whilst yellow, violet, brown and grey are very rare. The material is generally opaque, but sometimes translucent. Transparent glass is absent.

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[Figure: Fig. 20a. Arretine and other potteries from Arıkamedu (*Ancient India*, 1948 ).]

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Fig. 20b Arretine and other potteries from Arikamedu (Ancient India, 1948).

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Besides a number of shapeless lumps of iron, a few blades and rings of iron have been found at Arikamedu, as also a copper article.

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Discovery of two masonry tanks at Arikamedu leads to the suggestion that they were probably used for the dyeing of cloths.

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R.E.M. Wheeler has given an account of the findings in the excavations at Brahmagiri and Chandravalli in the Chitaldurg district of Mysore. These reveal three interlocking cultural levels. The lowest strata correspond to a Stone Age, the intermediate to an Iron Age extending probably from 200 B.C. — 50 A.D., and the uppermost, to what is named the Andhra Culture and extend to the surface. The Andhra Culture is believed to belong to the latter half of the 1st century A.D. as the discovery of certain Roman coins indicates.

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The pottery articles of the Stone Age Culture of Brahmagiri are hand-made, have a coarse, grey fabric, sometimes with a thin slip of the same clay. Articles of the earlier phase are painted and incised. The painted sherds have a red or buff slip. Those with red slip are burnished and salt-glazed. The painted decorations are applied after firing. The pigment employed was ochre There appears no resemblance, technically or artistically, to Indus Valley ceramics. Articles of later phase are generally dull mottled grey in colour, coarse and micaceous in texture, and often indifferently baked (Figs. 21 and 22). Copper and bronze rods found in this level indicate some sort of knowledge of their working, but also scarcity of the metal.

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Pottery wares of the intermediate Iron Age of Brahmagiri appear to be turned on the slow wheel and have a polished, brightly coloured black-red or all-black surface. A wide range of types has been discovered. The Iron Age strata have yielded a large number of iron objects in a rather bad state of preservation. These consist mostly of knives, wedge-like blades, chisels, sickles, lances, swords, arrow-heads, ring with nails, etc..

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Fig 21 Potteries from Brahmagiri (*Ancient India*, 1948)

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Fig. 22 Potteries from Chandravalli (*Ancient India*, 1948)

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The uppermost level of the Andhra Culture at Brahmagiri reveals pottery articles of relatively sophisticated type, turned on a fast wheel and coated with a salt-glaze. There is a variety of simple rectilinear or slightly curvilinear patterns in a paste of kaolin or lime under a wash of russet-coloured ochre. They are coated with a superficial salt-glaze. The colouring material employed is iron oxide.

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Glass bangles of this age (uppermost level) have been found both at Brahmagiri and Chandravalli. At Chandravalli numerous Roman coins of this age have been found.

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Excavations at Sisupalgarh near Bhuvaneswar in Orissa reveal pottery articles which are essentially plain with no paintings and decorations These are usually wheel-turned. Two types of wares, variations of an essentially integral culture, are noticed. In and above the earliest occupation of the site there occurs a type of a fine polished, bright, well-fired red-ware. This is overlapped in the upper level by a degenerate and crude type of coarser wares characterised by indifferent firing and a red or yellow ochreous slip. But the most distinctive type of article, which may be regarded as the typical of the Sisupalgarh Culture, is a knobbed vessel, a bowl-cum-lid, usually in grey or greyish-black colour with or without concentric groovings on the inner base

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Specimens of rouletted wares found at Sisupalgarh bear close resemblances to those of Arikamedu, as also to those of Brahmagiri and Chandravalli. So the age of the earliest specimens would lie at or about 50 A D.

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Fragments of glass bangles belonging very likely to the 2nd century A.D. have been found at Sisupalgarh.

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Among the metallic objects found at Sisupalgarh mention may be made of a miniature blow-pipe, antimony rods, copper pen and a lead ear-ornament, besides various articles of iron, including nails, spikes, sickles, staples, knife-blades, boxes, lances, spear-heads, daggers, arrow-heads, etc. A number of coins of silver, copper, gold and lead have also been unearthed. With these have been found two disc-shaped moulds of punch-marked coins, made of grey-ware pottery.