The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c3.33

c3.33

Doctrine of Scientific Method—Test of Truth—Perception—Observation and Experiment—Results in the Different Sciences—Fallacies of Observation—Doctrine of Inference—The Chárváka View—The Buddhists, their Analysis and Vindication of Inference—Causality and Identity of Essence—How to ascertain Concomitance—Specific Cause and Specific Effect—Canon of the Method of Subtraction—The Joint Method of Difference (Pañchakáraṇí)—Proof of the Method—Doubt and its Limits—The Nyáya Doctrine of Inference—Definition of a Cause—Unconditional Antecedent—The Doctrine of Anyathásiddha—Elimination of the Irrelevant Factors—Nyáya Objection to the Method of Difference—The Nyáya Analysis of the Causal Relation Continued—Co-effects—Synchronousness of Cause and Effect—Plurality of Causes—The Nyáya Ground of Inference—Vyápti or Unconditional Concomitance—Ascertainment of Vyápti—Upádhi—Process of disproving suspected Upadhis—Tarka or Úha—Difference between the Nyáya Method and Mill’s Joint Method of Agreement—Other Instances of Vyápti—Relation of Causality to Vyápti—Plurality of Causes—Scientific Methods as subsidiary to General Methodology and the Ascertainment of Truth—Hypotheses—Conditions of a Legitimate Hypothesis—Nirnaya or Verification of a Hypothesis—The Deduction Method—Navya Nyáya and its Significance in the History of Thought—Applied Logic—The Logic of the Particular Sciences—The Scientific Methods as applied to Therapeutics—The Scientific Methods as applied to Grammar and Philology—Conclusion . 244–295