The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c4.s1.t2: An Atom of Váyu

The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c4.s1.t2

Language: English

An Atom of Váyu

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Sp = Sparsa-Tanmátra (impact-potential). Sb = Śabda-Tanmátra (vibration-potential).

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An atom of Tejas (heat-and-light corpuscle) has the following structure :—

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[Figure: Váyu Váyu Váyu Váyu Sp Sp Rp Sp Sp Sp An Atom of Tejas. Rp = Rúpa-Tanmátra (light-potential). Sp = Sparsa-Tanmátra (impact-potential).]

A chemist will be disposed to push his chemical processes into the region of subtile matter. He may translate आवरण as a menstruum, and सहायक as a catalytic agent. In this case an atom of Váyu will be considered as generated from the impact-Tanmátra as a radicle, in the menstruum of vibration-Tanmátra, with Ákása-atoms as a catalytic agent.

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अत्रायं क्रमः—भूतादेः शब्दतन्मात्रं जायते, शब्दतन्मात्रं भूतादिरावृणोति, तत आकाशं जायते, ततः अस्मात् शब्दतन्मात्रात् स्पर्शतन्मात्रं जायते, स्पर्शतन्मात्रं शब्दतन्मात्रमावृणोति, एवं शब्दतन्मात्रावृतात् आकाशसहायकात् स्पर्शतन्मात्रात् वायुर्जायते, ततः अस्मात् स्पर्शतन्मात्रात् रूपतन्मात्रं जायते, रूपतन्मात्रं स्पर्शतन्मात्रमावृणोति, एवं स्पर्शतन्मात्रावृतात् वायुसहायकात् रूपतन्मात्रात् तेजो जायते—and so on. अयं क्रमः तत्त्वत्रयविवरणे कृष्णपादैरुक्तः। वरवरमुनि, तत्त्वत्रयभाष्य (अचित्प्रकरण) ।

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A slight variation of the above view is ascribed to a certain school of Vedántists in the तत्त्वनिरूपण.

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The scheme may be represented as follows:—

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A Bhúta-atom is evolved by integration (condensation and collocation, स्थूलावस्थारूप) from the corresponding Tanmátra (subtile matter). This is the same view as that of the *Vishnu Purána*.

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The Tanmátras again evolve from one another in a lineal series, as in Parásara's view. But the process of this generation is somewhat more complex. A Tanmátra first disintegrates and emanates in a surrounding medium (a menstruum) of the Tanmátra just preceding it in the order of genesis, and, with the help of its own Sthúla Bhúta as a sort of catalytic, generates the Tanmátra next in order; *e.g.*, the infra-atomic impact-particles (स्पर्श॑तन्मात्र) disintegrate or emanate, in a surrounding "atmosphere" of the vibratory subtile matter (शब्दतन्मात्र), and then, with the help of their own atomic integration Váyu, gas, generate the Tanmátra next in order, the subtile matter of radiant light-and-heat (तेजः).

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III. Patañjali's view, as expounded in the व्यासभाष्य and योगवार्त्तिक, is as follows:—

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(*a*) The order of genesis of various forms of subtile matter (potentials):—

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(1) Bhútádi, the rudiment-matter, original Mass, acted on by Rajas (Energy) produces the sound-potential (vibration-potential), अन्यान्याभ्याम् अहङ्काराभ्यां स्वकार्य्यजनने राजसाहङ्कारः सहकारीभवति ।

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(2) This subtile vibration-potential, as a radicle, with accretion of rudiment-matter (Bhútádi), condensing and collocating, and acted on by Rajas, generates the subtile touch-potential (impact-potential), which is impingent as well as vibratory (oscillating).

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(3) This subtile impact-potential, again, as a radicle, with accretion of rudiment-matter (Bhútádi), condensing and collocating, and acted on by Rajas, generates the subtile light-and-heat potential (रूपतन्मात्र) which radiates light and heat, in addition to being impingent and vibratory.

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(4) Next, the light-and-heat potential, as a radicle, with accretion of rudiment-matter (Bhútádi), condensing and collocating as before, generates the subtile taste-potential, which is charged with the potential of the taste-energy and of viscous attraction, in addition to being vibratory, impingent, and radiant.

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(5) Lastly, the subtile taste-potential as a radicle, with accretion of rudiment-matter as before, condensing and collocating, generates the subtile smell-potential, which is charged with the potential of the smell-energy, and also of cohesive attraction, in addition to being vibratory, impingent, and radiant.

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(*b*) The order of genesis of the Bhúta-Paramánus (forms of atomic matter).

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The five classes of atoms are generated as follows :—

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(1) The sound-potential, subtile matter, with accretion of rudiment-matter (Bhútádi), generates the Ákása-atom.

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(2) The touch-potentials combine with the vibratory particles (sound-potential) to generate the Váyu-atom.

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(3) The light-and-heat potentials combine with touch-potentials and sound-potentials (*i.e.* with impact particles and vibratory particles) to produce the Tejas-atom.
(4) The taste-potentials combine with light-and-heat potentials, touch-potentials, and sound-potentials (*i.e.* with radiant, impingent, and vibratory particles) to generate the Ap-atom; and
(5) The smell-potentials combine with the preceding potentials (*i.e.* with particles of taste-energy and with radiant, impingent, and vibratory particles) to generate the Earth-atom.

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The Ákása-atom possesses penetrability, the Váyu-atom impact or mechanical pressure, the Tejas-atom radiant heat-and-light, the Ap-atom viscous attraction, and the Earth-atom cohesive attraction.

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Vijñána-bhikshu in one passage gives the following scheme of the genesis of the Bhútas:—

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A radicle of sound-potential with rudiment-matter gives Ákása-atom (Bhútádi), a radicle of touch-potential with Ákása-atom gives Váyu-atom, a radicle of light-and-heat potential with Váyu-atom gives Tejas-atom, a radicle of taste-potential with Tejas-atom gives Ap-atom, and a radicle of smell-potential with Ap-atom gives Earth-atom. On this view, an atom

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of Ákása = Bh(Sb)
of Váyu = { Bh(Sb) } (Sp)
of Tejas = { Bh(Sb) } (Sp) Rp

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where Bh = भूतादि, Sb = शब्दतन्मात्र, Sp = स्पर्शेतन्मात्र, Rp = रूपतन्मात्र, and so on.

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Bhútas and Paramánus—Cosmo-genesis and its successive stages :—

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The “five Bhútas” stand for a classification of substances on the basis of their generic properties, resulting, as the Sánkhyas hold, from the structural type of their constituent atoms—a classification more physical than chemical, or properly speaking chemico-physical, unlike the purely chemical classification of the so-called elements of modern chemistry. A Paramánu, again, is a type of atoms corresponding to each Bhúta class, and indeed one and the same kind of Paramánu may comprehend atoms of different masses, if only these should agree in their structural type.

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*Cosmo-genesis : a Bird's-eye View.*—Out of the all-pervasive rudiment-matter (Bhútádi) appeared Ákása (ether), first as a Tanmátra (subtile matter) charged with the potential energy of sound (vibration-potential), and then as an atomic integration of a mono-Tanmátric structure (the Ákása-atom—आकाशारणु) also ubiquitous and all-enveloping. In the next stage we find a new kind of Tanmátras, systems of the infra-atomic vibratory particles, so arranged as to manifest a new form of Energy, that of impact or mechanical pressure, and these Tanmátras (स्पर्शंतन्मात्राणि) combining with the vibration-potentials (Ákása-Tanmátra) produced a new kind of atom, the di-Tanmátric Váyu-atom, which by aggregation formed a gaseous envelope composed of impinging (driving) vibratory particles (Váyu). Next appeared the third class of Tanmátras, infra-atomic systems of the impinging vibratory particles, which by their collocation developed a new form of Energy—the energy of radiant heat-and-light. These Tanmátras (रूपतन्मात्राणि) combining with the potentials (Tanmátras) of vibration and impact, produced a new kind of atom—the tri-Tanmátric Tejas-atom, the light-and-heat corpuscle, which by aggregation enveloped the gaseous world in huge flames. In the next stage we have the fourth class of Tanmátras, new and complex infra-atomic systems of the radiant impinging vibratory particles, which evolved the energy of viscous attraction, as well as the potential energy concerned in the taste-stimulus. These Tanmátras (रसतन्मात्राणि) combining with the three previous ones, gave rise to another class of atoms, the tetra-Tanmátric Ap-atom, and the flaming gases were thus precipitated into cosmic masses of viscous fluid matters (Ap). Finally appeared the fifth class of Tanmátras, infra-atomic systems of the viscous radiant impinging vibratory particles which developed new forms of Energy—the energy of cohesive attraction, as well as the potential energy concerned in the stimulus of smell. These Tanmátras (गन्धतन्मात्राणि) uniting with the other four kinds of infra-atomic subtile particles, formed another class of atoms, the penta-Tanmátric Earth-atom. Thus the viscous fluid matters were condensed and transformed into the Earth-Bhúta, comprising the majority of the so-called elements of chemistry.

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The Puránas, in their own fanciful way, conceive that, in the course of cosmic evolution, each succeeding Bhúta appeared within an outer envelope of its immediate predecessor, with a total mass (or volume?) a tenth less than that of the latter.

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वियत् तन्नाप्येकदेशगतो वायुः प्रकल्पितः ।
विमलेत् वह्निमप्येवं महतो न्यूनवर्त्तिनं ॥
ब्रह्मास्थावरशेष्वेवं न्यूनाधिक-विचारणा ।
वायोर्दशांशतो न्यूनो वह्निर्वायौ प्रकल्पितः ॥
पुराणोक्तं तारतम्यं दशांशैर्भूतपञ्चके ॥
(पञ्चदशी-भूतविवेक, Ślokas 72, 81, and 82.)

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Examples of the different Bhútas :—

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1. Ákása. This is ubiquitous.

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2. Váyu. Various substances composed of di-Tanmátric atoms—kinds of Váyu—must have been formed in the gaseous envelope, in the second stage of cosmic evolution, out of the proto-atoms of Ákása; but they have either suffered a fresh transformation into substances of a more complex atomic structure, or have dissipated into the mono-Tanmátric Ákása, out of which they took their rise. The one familiar example now surviving is atmospheric air. Water-vapour (बाष्प) is but water (Ap), and smoke, fumes, etc., but earth-particles in gaseous diffusion.

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3. Tejas. Various classes of Tejas-corpuscles — substances with tri-Tanmátric atomic structure, *i.e.* two grades subtler than the ordinary elements of chemistry (which are of a penta-Tanmátric structure)—are even now known (तेजो भौमादिभेदेन बहुविधं । भौमं दिव्यं चौदर्य्यं आकरजं—वरवरमुनि, तत्त्वत्रयभाष्य).

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First, there is fire, or the light and heat emitted by the burning log of wood or lamp (अग्निः-दीपः-भौमं तेजः).

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Now it is important to note that the flame of a burning log of wood (इन्धन) or of an oil-lamp is not pure Tejas, a pure mass of light-and-heat corpuscles. There is chemical union with Earth-particles (particles of the hard penta-Tanmátric substance) acted on by Energy; and then the Tejas-corpuscles, light-and-heat particles which are latent (absorbed) therein, come forth as flame (पार्थिवोपष्टम्शेन तदनुगतात् तेजसः अग्निभवति—विज्ञानभिक्षु, प्रवचनभाष्य, Sutra 110, Chap. V.). Then there is the light of the sun and the stars (दिव्यं सौरं चादित्यादि) which are flaming masses of molten viscous matters (जलप्रायेन्धनं तेजः दिव्यं तच्च सूर्यादि—तत्त्वत्रयभाष्य, अचित्प्रकरण) or of molten earthy matters (सूर्यादीनि सर्वाणि तेजांसि पार्थिवद्रव्यसङ्गेनैव अवस्थितानि—विज्ञानभिक्षु, प्रवचनभाष्य, Sutra 13, Chap. III.). There is also the lightning, which liberates a kind of Tejas latent in the aqueous particles and vapours, under the action of Energy, in the same way as an ordinary fire liberates the Tejas latent in the wood or other fuel. Next there are the stores of animal heat derived from the break-up of the nutritive material (औदर्य्य). Lastly there comes the peculiar form of the Tejas Energy (radiant Energy) stored up in the metalliferous ores and igneous rocks which have been formed in the subterranean heat. Here earthy matters are mixed up, but the radiant Energy predominates in the composition of the metals (तेजसाधिक्येन तेजसादितः सुवर्णादीनां—विज्ञानभिक्षु, प्रवचनभाष्य, Sutra 19, Chap. III.). Aniruddha, a late Sánkhya commentator, notes in reference to "igneous bodies" that the greater part of their mass is derived from the Earth Bhúta, though the Tejas particles determine the peculiar chemical combination which produces them; and this must also be his view of the composition of the metals (तत्र अपि (तैमसे शरीरे अपि) बहुतरपार्थिवावयवावष्टम्भकत्वं, अल्पत्वे चानुपभोगात् — अनिरुद्धवृत्ति, Sutra 112, Chap. V.).

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4. Ap. This viscous fluid of a tetra-Tanmátric structure has but one pure example, viz., water, though the various organic acids, the juices of fruits and the saps of plants, are supposed to be transformations of watery radicles combined with different kinds of earthy accretions.

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5. Lastly, the Earth Bhúta, the hard full-formed matter, with its penta-Tanmátric atoms, comprises by far the majority of the so-called chemical elements.

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The question is,—how does one and the same Bhúta, of the same formal structure, comprise different kinds of elements, with different atomic masses and different characteristic properties? And the answer is not far to seek. The properties of a thing are only the energies that are manifested in the particular collocations of the three Guṇas—Mass, Energy, and Essence; and a tri-Tanmátric or a penta-Tanmátric atom, *i.e.* an atom composed of three or five kinds of Tanmátras, may differ from another of the same class in respect of the number of constituent Tanmátras of any particular kind, as also of their collocation or grouping, and therefore in mass as well as in generic and specific characters.

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The Sāṅkhya-Pātañjala conceives the properties (or energies) of substances to result from the grouping or the quanta of the Tanmátras, or the Guṇas themselves, and hence any radical differences in substances of the same Bhúta class must characterise their atoms, though in an infra-sensible form. In the Nyáya-Vaiseshika, on the other hand, the atoms of the same Bhúta class are alike in themselves, homogeneous; and the variety of substances comprehended under the same Bhúta is ascribed merely to the different arrangements or groupings of the atoms (व्यूह) and not of their components, for components they have none.

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As a typical and familiar instance of the variety of characteristic properties (or energies) that may result from variations in accompaniment or grouping, the Sánkhya-Pátañjala points to the various kinds of fruit acids and juices, all originating from one and the same Bhúta (water) with different accretions of earthy matters (भूविकाराः). In the same way, though we speak of only five classes of Tanmátras and atoms, the infinite variety of the world results from the infinitely varied collocations of the three original Guṇas which underlie Tanmátra and atom alike. (सत्त्वरजस्तमसां अपकर्षकाष्ठापन्नः संघातः परमाणुरिति—न्यायवार्त्तिक, उद्योतकर, reporting the Sánkhya view. अयुतसिद्धावयवः संघातः परमाणुरिति—व्यासभाष्य, Sutra 44, Pada III. परमाणुः सामान्यविशेषात्मा अयुतसिद्धावयवभेदानुगतः समुदायः—व्यासभाष्य, Sutra 44, Pada IV. योग्यतावच्छिन्ना धर्मिणः शक्तिरेव धर्मः—*ibid.*, Sutra 14, Pada III. यो धर्मेषु अनुपाती सामान्यविशेषात्मा सोऽन्वयी धर्मी—*ibid.*, Sutra 14, Pada III.)

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स्यादेतत्—कथं एकरूपाणां गुणानां अनेकरूपा प्रवृत्तिः—इत्यत आह परिणामतः सलिलवत्। यथा वारिदविमुक्तं उदकं एकरसं अपि तत्तद्भूविकारान् आसाद्य नारिकेल-तालो-बिल्व-चिरबिल्व-तिन्दुकामलक-कपित्थ-फलरसतया परिणामात् मधुराम्ललवणतिक्तकटुकषायतया विकल्पते, एवमेकैकगुणसम्भवात्

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प्रधानं गुणं आश्रित्य अप्रधानगुणाः परिणामभेदान् प्रवर्तयन्ति । तदिदमुक्तं प्रतिप्रतिगुणाश्रयविशेषात्, एकेकगुणाश्रयेण यो विशेषस्तस्मात् इत्यर्थः ।
(वाचस्पति—कौमुदी—on Káriká 16.)

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If we take a unit of rudiment-matter (Bhútádi) for the unit of mass (*cf.* the mass of an electron with a charge of motion, etc.), and represent the first Tanmátra by t₁ such units, and if further t₂, t₃, t₄, t₅ units of mass (Bhútádi) be successively added at each accretion to form a fresh Tanmátra, then the second, third, fourth, and fifth Tanmátras will respectively contain t₁ + t₂, t₁ + t₂ + t₃, t₁ + t₂ + t₃ + t₄, and t₁ + t₂ + t₃ + t₄ + t₅ units of mass.

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Also the Váyu-atom (bi-Tanmátric system) will contain t₁ + (t₁ + t₂), *i.e.* 2t₁ + t₂ units of mass; the Tejas-atom (tri-Tanmátric system) will contain t₁ + (t₁ + t₂) + (t₁ + t₂ + t₃), *i.e.* 3t₁ + 2t₂ + t₃ units; the Ap-atom (tetra-Tanmátric system) t₁ + (t₁ + t₂) + (t₁ + t₂ + t₃) + (t₁ + t₂ + t₃ + t₄), *i.e.* 4t₁ + 3t₂ + 2t₃ + t₄ units; and the Earth-atom (penta-Tanmátric system) t₁ + (t₁ + t₂) + + (t₁ + t₂ + t₃ + t₄ + t₅), *i.e.* 5t₁ + 4t₂ + 3t₃ + 2t₄ + t₅ units.

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If t units of mass be added to the first Tanmátra to form the atom of Ákása, the latter will contain t₁ + t units of mass.

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In other words, the numbers representing the mass-units (Tamas) in the different classes of atoms (gross matter) will form an ascending series, viz. t₁ + t, 2t₁ + t₂, 3t₁ + 2t₂ + t₃, 4t₁ + 3t₂ + 2t₃ + t₄, and 5t₁ + 4t₂ + 3t₃ + 2t₄ + t₅.

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Now if a follower of the Sánkhya-Pátañjala were asked to account for differences among Paramánus of the same Bhúta class, he would perhaps suppose t₁ to vary from α₁ to β₁, t₂ from α₂ to β₂, t₃ from α₃ to β₃, t₄ from α₄ to β₄, and t₅ from α₅ to β₅.

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Therefore the mass-units contained in the Váyu-atoms of the different possible Váyu substances would be represented by 2α₁+t, 2α₁+1+t, 2α₁+2+t, ………2β₁+t, in A. P. with unity as common difference, there being 2(β₁—α₁)+1 possible Váyu substances.

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The mass-units contained in the Tejas-atoms of the different possible Tejas substances would be represented by the series 3α₃+2α₂+α₃, 3α₁+2α₂+α₃+1, ………3β₁+2β₂+β₃, increasing in A. P. by unity as common difference, there being 3(β₁-α₃)+2(β₂-α₂)+(β₃-α₃)+1 Tejas substances possible.

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The mass-units contained in the Ap-atoms of the different possible Ap substances would form the series 4α₁+3α₂+2α₃+α₄, 4α₁+3α₂+2α₃+α₄+1, ………4β₁+3β₂+2β₃+β₄, there being 4(β₁—α₁)+3(β₂—α₂)+2(β₃—α₃)+(β₄—α₄)+1 Ap substances possible.

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The mass-units contained in the Earth-atoms of the different possible Earth substances would form the series in A. P., 5α₁+4α₂+3α₃+2α₄+α₅, 5α₁+4α₂+3α₃+2α₄+α₅+1, ………5β₁+4β₂+3β₃+2β₄+β₅, there being 5(β₁—α₁)+4(β₂—α₂)+3(β₃—α₃)+2(β₄—α₄)+(β₅—α₅)+1 Earth substances possible.

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Size (परिमाण).—As to size or volume, the Sánkhya accepts only two kinds—the infinitesimal, which is also without parts (अणु—निरवयव), and the non-infinitesimal, which consists of parts (महत्—सावयव). The latter varies from the excessively small (the so-called Anus, Tanmátras, and Paramánus) to the indefinitely great (परममहत्—विभु,—*e.g.* Ákása).

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The Gunas alone are infinitesimal, with the exception of those ubiquitous ones that evolve into Ákása-atoms and Mind-stuff (आकाशाणु, and अन्तःकरण); all the rest of the evolved products (whether subtile or gross matter) are non-infinitesimal.

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Vijnána-bhikshu notes that all the Gunas (Reals) cannot be ubiquitous. If this were the case, that disturbance of equilibrium, that unequal aggregation with unequal stress and strain with which cosmic evolution begins, would be impossible. The Gunas, which give rise to Ákása and Mind-stuff, must be held to be ubiquitous, and this will suffice for the ubiquity of Prakriti. (न च आत्मदर्शने गुणाख्यप्रकृतेः विभुत्वमेवावगम्यते इति वाच्यम् । अन्तःकरणाकाशहेतुगुणानां विभुत्वेन तदुपपत्तेः । सर्व्वगुणानां विभुत्वे सति साम्यपरिणामहेतुक्षोभसंयोगाद्यसंभवात्—योगवार्त्तिक, Sutra 51, Pada III.)

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*Chemical Analysis and Synthesis—Elements and Compounds.*—What, then, is the equivalent in the Sánkhya-Pátañjala of the distinction between a chemical element and a chemical compound, or is there none? Did or did not this physical analysis and classification of things lead on to a classification based on chemical analysis and chemical synthesis? These are questions of singular interest, the answer to which will disclose some new points of view from which the ancient Hindu thinkers approached the problems.

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Aggregates (समूहाः) may, in regard to their structure, be divided into two classes: (1) those of which the parts are in intimate union and fusion, being lost in the whole (अयुतसिद्धावयवाः समूहाः), and (2) mechanical aggregates, or collocations of distinct and independent parts (युतसिद्धावयवाः समूहाः).

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A substance is an aggregate of the former kind, and may be divided into two classes: (1) the Bhútas and their “isomeric” modifications (भूत, भूतभेद, and भूतविकार), and (2) chemical compounds (मिलितद्रव्य, संहतभूतार्थ). Chemical compounds, again, may be subdivided into two classes: (1) those composed of atoms of the same Bhúta class, *i.e.* of different isomeric modifications of the same Bhúta, and (2) those composed of atoms of different Bhúta classes. In the first case, there is contact between “isomeric” atoms (सजातीय-संयोग), in the second case between heterogeneous atoms (विजातीय-संयोग). The first contact leads to intimate union (सङ्गः,—सङ्गाख्यः यः संयोगविशेषः तेनैव द्रव्याणां विकारो भवति—विज्ञानभिक्षु, प्रवचनभाष्य): the isomeric atoms by a peculiar liberation of Energy (सजातीयेापष्टम्भ—the action of similars on similars) are attracted towards one another, and being riveted, as it were, form the so-called material cause (उपादानकारण) of the compound product. The second kind of contact (that between unlike atoms of heterogeneous Bhútas) begins with a liberation of Energy (उपष्टम्भ), which breaks up each of the Bhútas; and taking particles (or atoms) of one as nuclei or radicles, groups particles of the rest round these radicles in a comparatively free or unattached condition. In this case, one Bhúta, that which serves to furnish the radicles, not necessarily that which is numerically or quantitatively predominant, gets the name of material cause (उपादानकारण), and the others, which by their collocation cause the liberation of Energy (उपष्टम्भ, अवष्टम्भ, or विष्टम्भ), are called efficient causes (निमित्तकारण)—(एवमेकैकगुणसम्भवात् प्रधानगुणं चाश्रित्य अप्रधानगुणाः परिणामभेदान् प्रवर्तयन्ति—वाचस्पति, कौमुदी on Káriká 16). The illustrations given (viz. the Rasas as modifications of Ap, water, with Earth-accretions) show that this process applies not only to the Guṇas, but also to the Bhútas. (यथा चाकाशादेकरसं सलिलं पतितं नानारूपात् संक्षेपात् भिद्यते—गौड़पाद on Káriká 17. तत्र चापि (तैजसे शरीरे चापि) बहुतरपार्थिवावयवा-वष्टम्भात्, अत्यन्ते च अनुपभोगात् —अनिरुद्ध on Sutra 112, Chap. V. जातिसाङ्कर्यस्य अस्माकमदोषत्वात् सामग्रौसमवधाने अनेकैरपि इन्द्रियैः एकदा एकवृत्त्युत्पादने बाधकं नास्ति।—विज्ञानभिक्षु, प्रवचनभाष्य।)

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Aniruddha goes so far as to hold that both “isomeric” and “heterogenic” combinations are real cases of constitutive contact. (आरम्भकसंयोग, *e.g.* भौतिकवायोर्देहारम्भकत्वम् —अनिरुद्ध on Sutra 113, Chap. V.). But in the later Sáṅkhya-Pátañjala the current teaching denied this—वहूनामुपादानायोगात् (Sutra 102, Chap. V.), where विज्ञानभिक्षु notes—बहूनां भिन्नजातीयानां चोपादानत्वं न दृष्टमिति सजातीयमेवोपादानम्। इतरच्च भूतचतुष्टयमुपष्टम्भकम्।

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But besides these transformations of substance (द्रव्यान्तर-परिणाम) by “isomeric” or “heterogenic” process, ceaseless changes go on in the characters, the modality, and the states of substances—changes which are due to the unequal distribution of force (or of stress and strain—pressure) among the Guṇas, which are in themselves constant. (धर्मलक्षणावस्थापरिणामाः न द्रव्यान्तरतः—यथा एका रेखा शतस्थाने शतं दशस्थाने दश, एकश्चैकस्थाने, यथा चैकत्वेऽपि स्त्रो माता चोच्यते दुहिता च स्वसा चेति—गुणिनित्यत्वेऽपि गुणानां विमर्दवैचित्र्यात् —व्यासभाष्य, Sutra 13, Pada III.)

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“Even as the same figure ‘1’ stands for a hundred in the place of hundred, for ten in the place of ten, and for a unit in the place of unit.”¹

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¹ This conclusively proves that the decimal notation was familiar to the Hindus when the Vyása-Bháshya was written, *i.e.* centuries before the first appearance of the notation in the writings of the Arabs or the Greco-Syrian intermediaries. Váchaspati, who comments on the Vyása-Bháshya, composed his Nyáya-Súchí-Nibandha in **वस्रङ्कवसुवत्सरे**, *i.e.* Samvat 898 or 842 a.d. This cannot be Śaka 898, for apart from the decisive use of **वत्सर**, which by this time had come to signify the Samvat era, Váchaspati’s commentator, Udayana, wrote the Lakshanávalí in Śaka 906—

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Now the question is—in these mixed substances does the fusion take place by Paramánus or by larger masses (or lumps)? Now a Paramánu is defined to be the smallest portion of any substance which exhibits the characteristic qualities of that substance; in other words, it stands for the smallest homogeneous portion of any substance. It is not without parts, and there-

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**तर्काम्बराङ्कप्रमितेष्वतीतेषु शकान्ततः ।**
**वर्षेषूदयनश्चक्रे सुबोधां लक्षणावलीं ॥**

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and Udayana, who wrote the Parisuddhi on the Tátparyyatíká of Váchaspati, could not have been a contemporary of the latter, as will also appear from the invocation to Sarasvati in the opening lines of the Parisuddhi. Váchaspati, then, preceded Udayana by 142 years, and must have been himself preceded by the author of the Vyása-Bháshya by a longer interval still, for Váchaspati ascribes the Bháshya to Veda-Vyása himself (**वेदव्यासेन भाषिते भाष्ये ज्ञात्वा विधास्यते**). The internal evidence also points to the conclusion that the Bháshya cannot have been composed later than the sixth century—*cf.* the quotations from Pañchasikha, Várshaganya, and the Shashthi-Tantra-Sástra, without a single reference to Ísvara-Krishna—which is decisive. I may add that I remember to have come across passages of a similar import in Buddhist and other writings of a still earlier date.

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fore not indivisible. It is subject to disintegration. In a Bhúta or its isomeric modification, the Paramánu, the smallest homogeneous component particle, is unmixed, and therefore corresponds to the atom of modern chemistry. In a mixed substance (मिलितद्रव्य, संहतभूतार्थ), whether it be an "isomeric" or a heterogenic compound, the qualities are due to the mixture, and therefore its Paramánu (usually called Arambhaka Paramánu), the smallest homogeneous particle possessing its characteristic qualities, must result from the mixture of the Paramánus (in smaller or larger numbers as the case may be) of the component substances. In the Sánkhya view, then, the Paramánu of a mixed substance (Arambhaka Paramánu) corresponds to what we now call molecule. (अपकर्षपर्य्यन्तं द्रव्यं परमाणुरिति—व्यासभाष्य। लोष्ट्रस्य हि प्रविभज्यमानस्य यस्मिन्नवयवे ऽल्पत्वतारतम्यं व्यवतिष्ठते सः अपकर्षपर्य्यन्तपरमाणुः—वाचस्पति, तत्त्ववैशारदी—Sutra 52, Pada III. नाणुनित्यता न निर्भागत्त्वं । पृथिवीपरमाणुः जलपरमाणुरित्यादिव्यवहारस्तु पृथिव्यादीनां अपकर्षकाष्ठाभिप्रायान्नैव ।—विज्ञानभिक्षु, प्रवचनभाष्य, Sutra 88, Chap. V.) That the Paramánus may form binary molecules (द्वयुक) in forming substances, is acknowledged by the Sánkhyas, as will appear from Gaudapáda: तथा अन्योन्याश्रयाश्च द्वयुकवद्गुणाः । (गौड़पाद, on Káriká 12). Even the Vaiseshikas, with their prejudice against "poly-Bhautic" or "heterogenic" combination, acknowledge that in "poly-Bhautic" compounds the different Bhúta substances unite by their Paramánus (or atoms), though they rigidly insist that in such cases only one atom should be regarded as the "radicle" (उपादान or द्रव्यारम्भक कारण) and the others as co-efficient causes (निमित्तकारण—उपष्टम्भक, *e.g.* प्रशस्तपाद—एवं समुत्पन्नेषु चतुर्षु महाभूतेषु महेश्वरस्या- भिध्यानमात्रात् तैजसेभ्योऽणुभ्यः पार्थिवपरमाणुसहितेभ्यो महदण्डमुत्पद्यते (प्रशस्तपादभाष्य—where S'rídhara notes पार्थिवा अवयवा उपष्टम्भकाः and Udayana तैजसानां परमाणूनां पार्थिवाणुसाहित्येन खण्डस्य हिरण्मयत्वं विवक्षितं).

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It was only in the mediæval Sánkhya-Pátañjala that under the influence of the Nyáya-Vaiseshika doctrine a radical difference was conceived to exist between the structure (or constitution) of a molecule composed of "isomeric" atoms, and that of one composed of heterogeneous atoms. In the former case there was believed to take place intimate union (सङ्ग), in the latter case only a grouping of comparatively free or loosely attached atoms round a radicle atom (व्यूहन), with liberation of Energy (उपष्टम्भ, अवष्टम्भ, or विष्टम्भ) and the setting up of unequal stress and strain (गुणवैषम्यविमर्द—ईश्वरकृष्ण). At the same time it was of course admitted that this distinction does not apply to the forms of subtile matter (Tanmátra—सूक्ष्मभूत) which could unite in intimate fusion, whether homogeneous or heterogeneous. For example, the subtile body (सूक्ष्मशरीर) which is supposed to be the seat or vehicle of the conscious principle is acknowledged by Vijñána-bhikshu to be penta-Bhautic (पञ्चभूतात्मक); in other words, all the five Tanmátras serve as material causes, though the gross body (the animal organism) is stated to be only a "heterogenic" compound with the Earth Bhúta as radicle or base. (अधिष्ठानशरीरं च सूक्ष्मं पञ्चभूतात्मकं वक्ष्यते । तन्मात्रकार्य्यं यत् भूतपञ्चकं लिङ्गाधिष्ठानंशरीरम्—प्रवचनभाष्य, Sutras 11 and 12, Chap. III. स्थूलशरीरं पार्थिवमेव अन्यानि च भूतानि उपष्टम्भकानि—*ibid.*, Sutra 19, Chap. III.)

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But in the original Sáṅkhya-Pátañjala it appears that the production of a new substance by mixture of unlike Bhútas (विजातीयसंयोग) was conceded as freely as in the Vedánta, and was conceived as in nowise differing from the formation of a compound of atoms of the same Bhúta class. The Sáṅkhya analysis of all change into transformations of Energy due to collocations of unchanging Gunas, in other words the prevailing chemico-physical (or physical) point of view, naturally recognises no distinction between collocations of "isomeric" and those of heterogeneous atoms. At bottom they are all collocations of the Gunas. Even Vijñána-bhikshu, who, as one of the latest expounders of the Sáṅkhya-Pátañjala, has been most affected by the Vaiseshika prejudice against "poly-Bhautic" combination (विजातीयसंयोग), urges that the qualities of a compound substance are not necessarily the result of similar qualities in the component elements. (सजातीयकारणगुणस्यैव कार्य्यगुणारम्भकता इति तु तेषां (तार्किकाणां) अपि न नियमः।) Elsewhere he explains that, so far from the vital activity being independent, it is originated and maintained by the combined operation or fusion of the different sensory and motor reflexes of the living organism, and notes that the united operation of mixed (or miscellaneous) causes, where there is a fit collocation of matter, offers no difficulty to a follower of the Sáṅkhya-Pátañjala. (जातिसाङ्कर्य्यस्य अस्माकमदोषत्वात्, सामग्रोसमवधाने सति अनेकैरपि इन्द्रियैः एकदा एकवृत्त्युत्पादने बाधकं नास्ति—प्रवचनभाष्य, Sutra 32, Chap. II.) In the middle of the ninth century we find Váchaspati instancing some "heterogenic" or "poly-Bhautic" compositions as typical examples of evolutionary change (परिणाम) and unhesitatingly accepting the substantive character of the products. In the Kaumudi he describes the various acids and juices of fruits as modifications of the same original water in the presence of different kinds of earthy accretions. The process is peculiar. The water-particle (or atom) serves as a radicle or centre of a system, and the different kinds of the Earth-Bhúta centering round this as a nucleus become the seat of forces, which bring in the development of new energies (and new qualities, *e.g.* tastes) in the water. (यथा वारिदविमुक्तं उदकं एकरसमपि तत्तद्भूतविकारान् आसाद्य नारिकेल-ताली-बिल्व-कपित्थादि-रसताया परिणामात् मधुराम्ललवणतिक्तकटुकषायतया विकल्पते। इति रैकैकगुणसम्भवात् प्रधानगुणं आश्रित्य अप्रधानगुणाः परिणामभेदान् प्रवर्तयन्ति।—कौमुदी on Káriká 16.) Váchaspati also points out that different substances may be transformed into one and the same substance (*e.g.* the production of salt by the cow, the horse, the buffalo, and the elephant, thrown into the salt-factory of Sambara in Rajputana, or of the flame of a candle by the combination of wick, oil, and fire). (परिणामैकत्वं बहूनामपि एकः परिणामः दृष्टः। तद्यथा गवाश्व-महिषमातङ्गानां रुमानिक्षिप्तानां एकलवणत्वजातीयलक्षणः परिणामः, वर्त्तितैलानलानां च प्रदीप इति।—तत्त्ववैशारदी on व्यासभाष्य, Pada IV., Sutra 14.)

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Earlier still, *i.e.* not later than the sixth century, the Vyása-Bháshya, noting that inorganic matter, vegetable substances, and animal substances do not differ from one another essentially in respect of their potential energies and ultimate constituents, points out that various bi-Bhautic chemical compounds of water and earth substances, in the shape of saps, acids, and juices, are found in plants in their different parts (जलभूम्योः पारिणामिकं रसादिवैश्वरूप्यं स्थावरेषु दृष्टम्). In other words, bi-Bhautic compounds are here placed in the same category as compounds of substances of the same Bhúta class, for here the particles of both the Bhútas are regarded as forming the matter (material cause—उपादानकारण) of the smallest homogeneous portions of the compound substances.

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*N.B.*—Váchaspati naturally interprets this to mean separate modifications of the two Bhútas.

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The view of the earlier Sánkhyas, that atoms of different Bhútas may chemically combine to form molecules of compound substances as much as atoms of different modes of the same Bhúta, comes out clearly in Utpala's brief reference to the Sánkhya system in his commentary on Varáhamihira's Vrihat Samhitá. (एभ्यः पञ्चभ्यः [तन्मात्रेभ्यः] पञ्चमहाभूतानि भवन्ति। तेभ्यः शरीरिणां शरीराणि। यतः पञ्चमहाभूतमयानि शरीराणि—Utpala, Chap. I., Śloka 7.)

Linked texts (4)

Yogasūtra — Patañjali (author of the Yogasūtra), Sanskrit
Pañcadaśī — Mādhava & Bhāratītīrtha, Sanskrit
Sāṃkhyakārikā — Īśvarakṛṣṇa, Sanskrit
Viṣṇupurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit