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The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c7: Chapter IV. Hindu Ideas about Plants and Plant-Life

The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c7

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Chapter IV. Hindu Ideas about Plants and Plant-Life

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CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.

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*Charaka*:—Plants according to Charaka are divisible into (1) *Vanaspatis*, trees bearing fruit without flowers; (2) *Vânaspatyas*, trees bearing flowers as well as fruits; (3) *Auṣadhis*, herbs that wither after fructification; and (4) *Vîrudhs*, other herbs with spreading stems.

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*Chakrapâṇi* notes in his commentary on Charaka: The *Vîrudhs* comprise two classes, (1) *Latâs*, creepers; (2) *Gulmas*, herbs with succulent (or cactaceous) stems and shrubs. The *Auṣadhis* are sub-divided into (1) annuals or perennials, bearing fruit, and (2) plants that wither away after maturing and without fructification, *e.g.* grasses like the *Dûrvâ* (Cynodon dactylon).

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*Suśruta*:—Suśruta's division is identical with Charaka's. Dalvana, the commentator, gives some details. The *Plakṣa* (Ficus infectoria) and the *Udumvara* (Ficus glomerata) are given as instances of trees bearing fruits without flowers (*Vanaspatis*). It appears that plants with naked and incomplete flowers (achlamydeous plants) were considered as flowerless, as also trees whose flowers, like those of the fig, are placed on the internal walls of a common receptacle. Of the *Brikṣas*, flower- and fruit-bearing trees, the mango-tree, the *Jambu*-tree (Eugenia jambolana), etc., are given as examples. The *Virudhs* are of two classes, (1) creepers with stems spreading on the ground (प्रतानवतः), and (2) herbs with succulent (or cactaceous) stems (गुल्मिन्यः or स्तम्बिन्यः वर्त्तुललतासन्ततिविशिष्टाः). *Auṣadhis* are those that wither away after fructification, *e.g.* wheat, barley, etc. (फलपाकनिष्ठा गोधूमादयः). Some divide *Auṣadhis* into two classes, (1) those that wither after bearing fruit, *e.g.* paddy, linseed, pulses, etc., and (2) plants that wither after maturity, and bear neither flowers nor fruits, *e.g.* the mushroom, etc.

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*Praśastapâda* :—Praśastapâda, the Vaiśeṣika doctor, classifies plants as follows :—(1) *Trinas*, grasses ; (2) *Auṣadhis*, herbs that wither after fructification ; (3) *Latâs*, spreading and creeping herbs ; (4) *Avatânas*, arboraceous plants and shrubs ; (5) *Brikṣas*, trees bearing flowers and fruits ; and (6) *Vanaspatis*, trees bearing fruits without flowers.

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*Śrîdhara* in the *Kandalî* gives *Ulapa* as an example of a grass, wheat as an example of *Auṣadhi* (annual), the *Ketakî* (Pandanus odoratissimus) and the *Vîjapura* (Citrus medica) as examples of *Avatânas* (Vitapas, arboraceous plants), the *Kovidâra* (Bauhinia) as an example of flower- and fruit-bearing tree, and the *Udumvara* (Ficus glomerata) as an example of a *Vanaspati* (flowerless fruit-bearing tree).

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Udayana in the *Kiraṇâvalî* notes the *Kuṣmânda* (a species of Cucurbita) as an instance of a creeper (*Latâ*), and the palms तालादयः as modifications of the grasses (*Trinas*).

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*Amara* :—Amara, the lexicographer, in the *Vanauṣadhivarga* and the *Vaiśyavarga* (enumeration of wild plants and of food-grains) gives some interesting particulars. (1) The trees (the flowering *Brikṣas* and the flowerless *Vanaspatis*) are fruit-bearing, and possess woody stems काण्डारु or trunks (प्रकाण्ड—प्रकाण्डः स्कन्धः स्यान्मूलात् शाखाविस्तरः). Next come (2) arboraceous plants and shrubs (क्षुप, ह्रस्वशाखाशिफः क्षुपः) bearing flowers as well as fruits. (3) The *Latâs* are next noticed, flowering plants with herbaceous stems, some of them creeping on the ground (प्रतानिनो), others succulent (गुल्मिनो), others twining or voluble (सुखाद्योर्यता लता, वृक्षगामिनी लता — Amara, *cf.* Mukuta, तरुमूलात् प्रभृति वृक्षाग्रपर्य्यन्तं गता गुडूच्यादि लताप्यपवरोहः —others call this शिफा). *Cf.* Suśruta—लताः प्रतानवत्यः गुल्मिन्यश्च. (4) Next come the *Auṣadhis* (in the narrower sense), herbaceous plants bearing fruit with or without flowers, and dying or withering away after fructification. Some instances of *Kandaśâka* (tubers, rhizomes, corms) are noticed, *e.g.* the *Palându* (the onion, पलाण्डुस्तु सुकन्दकः), the *Laśuna* (garlic, महाकन्द), etc. But the graminaceae enumerated in the *Vaiśyavarga* are the chief instances of the *Auṣadhis*—plants that die after fructification. These are cultivated *Auṣadhis*, but their affinities with the next class, the grasses (*Triṇas*), are also noted (*e.g.* धान्यं व्रीहि स्तम्बकरो । स्तम्बो गुच्छस्तृणादीनाम् । तृणधान्यानि नीवाराः । नाड़ीनालं च काण्डोऽस्य). Next are enumerated (5) the *Triṇas*, grasses, of which the characteristic is the formation of *gulmas* (culms of grasses with annular knots from which leaves spring—स्तम्बो गुल्मे तृणादीनामकाण्डद्रुमगुच्छयोः). It is worthy of note that, in the enumeration of the grasses, the bamboo is considered as a sort of giant grass (तृणध्वज, grass flag, तुचेषु ध्वज ईव). The reeds (नलादयः) are also placed among the grasses (नलादयस्तृणं गवेधुकाशाकप्रमुसमपि। प्रमुखशब्दात् नीवाराद्याः). (6) Finally, the Palmaceæ (including the cocoanut, date, areca, and other palms) are classed as Tree-grasses, probably because, like the grasses, they are endogens characterised by spikes and parallel veins. तृणद्रुमः। (तृणराजाङ्कयस्तालः नारिकेलस्तु लाङ्गली etc., एते च हिंतालसहितास्तृणयः खर्जूरः केतकी ताली खर्जुरा च तृणद्रुमाः, —*cf.* also the *Râjanighantu*).

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I may add that Amara places parasitical plants among the *Latâs* (वन्दा वृक्षादनी। वृक्षरुहा। जीवन्तिकेत्यपि). They climb trees and feed upon them. These are to be distinguished from climbing plants, like the *Guḍuchî* (Tinospora cordifolia), which have separate roots of their own. They are also to be distinguished from the adventitious roots descending from the branches of trees, like the Ficus religiosa, which are usually termed *avarohâs* (अवरोहाः). The name *śiphâ* is ordinarily applied to the rootlets and suckers by which the tendrils of various creepers are attached to the soil. (शाखाशिफा अवरोहः स्यात्। वटादेः शाखायाः अवलम्बिनी शिफा। मूलाच्चायं गता लता। मूलादूर्ध्वं गता लता स्यात्—Amara with Bhânuji Dîkṣita's commentary. But the Mukuta notes:—तरुमूलात् प्रभृति वृक्षाग्रपर्य्यन्तंगता गुडुच्यादि लताप्यप अवरोहः।) The *Guḍuchî* is also called वत्साडनी, छिन्नरुहा।

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The Hindu Materia Medica mentions *Âkâśavallî*, *lit.* sky-creeper, a name which seems to have been originally intended for some orchids; also *Plava* (*lit.* floating), weeds that float in stagnant ponds, and *Śaivâla*, mosses and lichens (*e.g.* दूर्वाकसेरुमवशैवालं जलेन कल्पितं पीतं शुक्रसेहहरं—*Chakrapâṇi-Samgraha*, also *Bhâva-* *Prakâsâ*). These are not classified, but like the mushrooms must come under the *Pâkaniṣṭha auṣadhis*, Auṣadhis that die after maturing, without bringing forth flowers or fruits.

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ELEMENTARY IDEAS OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY.

Characteristics of Plant-Life

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The *Nyâya-vindu-tîkâ* of Dharmottara, the Buddhist scholiast, notices the phenomenon of sleep (contraction of leaves in the night) in certain plants (**स्वापः रात्रौ पत्रसङ्कोचः**).

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Udayana notices in plants the phenomena of life, death, sleep, waking, disease, drugging, transmission of specific characters by means of ova, movement towards what is favourable and away from what is unfavourable (**वृक्षादयः प्रतिनियतभोक्तृव्यधिष्ठिताः जीवनमरणस्वप्नजागरणरोगभेषजप्रयोग-बीजसजातीयानुबन्धानुकूलोपगमप्रतिकूलापगमादिभ्यः प्रसिद्धशरीरवत्** — Udayana, पृथिवीनििरूपणम्). I may add that metaphors drawn from the heliotropic movements of the *Sûryya-mukhî*-flower are among the stock-in-trade of Sanskrit poetry and belles-lettres.

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The Jaina writer Guṇaratna, in his commentary on the *Ṣaḍdarśana-Samuchchaya* (*circa* 1350 A.D.), enumerates the following characteristics of the plant-life: (1) stages of infancy, youth and age; (2) regular growth; (3) various kinds of movement or action connected with sleep, waking, expansion and contraction in response to touch, also movement towards a support or prop; (4) withering on wound or laceration of organs; (5) assimilation of food according to the nature of the soil; (6) growth or decay by assimilation of suitable or unsuitable food as prescribed in the science of the diseases of plants and their treatment (वृक्षायुर्वेद); (7) disease; (8) recovery from diseases or wounds by the application of drugs; (9) dryness or the opposite, due to the sap which answers to the chyle (रस) in animals; and (10) special food favourable to impregnation. (विशिष्टदौहृदादिमत्त्वं विशिष्टस्त्रीशरीरवत् यथा स्त्रीशरीरस्य तथाविधदौहृदपूरणात् पुत्रादिप्रसवनं तथा वनस्पतिशरीरस्यापि तत्पूरणात् पुष्पफलादिप्रसवनं।) Even the *Vanaspati*s (flowerless, but fruit-bearing trees) may be made to flower (*cf.* Vârahamihira's recipes for the treatment of plants for similar purposes; *cf.* Guṇaratna, *Tarkarahasyadîpikâ*, *Jaina-mâta*, Śloka 49).

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Śankara Miśra in the *Upaskâra* notes as an additional characteristic the growth of organs (or tissues) by natural recuperation after wound or laceration (भग्नक्षतसंरोहणे च, *Upaskâra*, Chap. IV., Ahnika 2, Sûtra 5, S. B. H., Vol. VI.).

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Guṇaratna gives a list of plants that exhibit the phenomena of sleep and waking (शमीप्रपुन्नाटसिम्बीसरकासुन्दक-बप्पूलांगस्त्यामलकीकतिप्रभृतीनां स्वापविबोधतः, *ibid.*). He also notices the sensitiveness to touch of plants like the Mimosa pudica, लज्जावती लता, which show a manifest reaction in the form of contraction, लज्जालूप्रभृतीनां हस्तादिसंसर्गात् यच्च सङ्कोचादिका परिस्फुटक्रिया उपलभ्यते (*ibid.*).

Sexuality

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Very vague ideas were entertained as to the sexual characters of plants. The pollen is called *Rajas*, *puṣpa*, *prasuna*—names which are also applied to the female menstruum—and Amara expressly states that for females and flowers these elements (and the terms signifying them) are the same (स्त्रीणां सुमनसां पुष्पं प्रसूनं समम्—Amara, *Vanauṣadhivarga*). Charaka (*Dridhavala*), indeed, distinguishes between the male and the female *vatsa* (or *kutaja*), considering the variety that bears white flowers and large fruits as male (बृहत्फलश्वेतपुष्पः पुमान्, Holarrhena antidysenterica), and that which bears red or yellow flowers and small fruits as female (श्यावारुणपुष्पो स्त्री—असितकूटज, Wrightia tinctoria; Charaka, *Kalpasthâna*, Chap. V.; but this is hopelessly wrong. Even these vague ideas were afterwards completely lost, and the *Râjanighantu* tells us of a grotesque division of plants into male, female, and hermaphrodite, based on the slender or stout, the soft or hard, the long or short, the simple or mixed character of the stems and flowers! (*Râjanighantu*, अनूपादि प्रथमो वर्गः स्त्रीपुंनपुंसकत्वेन त्रैविध्यं स्थावरेष्वपि, etc.).

Consciousness

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The Hindu Scriptures teach that plants have a sort of dormant or latent consciousness, and are capable of pleasure and pain (अन्तःसंज्ञा भवन्त्येते सुखदुःखसमन्विताः). Chakrapâṇi notes in the *Bhânumati* that the consciousness of plants is a sort of stupefied (darkened or comatose) consciousness (वृक्षास्तु चेतनावन्तोऽपि तमश्छन्नज्ञानतया शास्त्रोपदेश-विषया एव).

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Udayana also notes that plants have a dormant unmanifested consciousness which is extremely dull (अतिमन्दान्तःसंज्ञितया, etc.).

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The *Mahâbhârata* adds that plants are sensitive to heat and cold, to the sound of thunder, etc., as well as to odours both pleasant and unpleasant :—

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उष्मतो म्लायते पर्णं त्वक् फलं पुष्पमेव च ।
म्लायते शीर्य्यते चापि स्पर्शस्तेनात्र विद्यते ॥
वाय्वग्न्यशनि-निर्घोषैः फलं पुष्पं विशीर्य्यते ।
श्रोत्रेण गृह्यते शब्दस्तस्माच्छृण्वन्ति पादपाः ।
वल्ली वेष्टयते वृक्षं सर्व्वतश्चैव गच्छति ।
नह्यदृष्टेश्च मार्गोऽस्ति तस्मात् पश्यन्ति पादपाः ॥
पुष्यापुण्यैस्तथा गन्धैर्धूपैश्च विविधैरपि ।
अरोगाः पुष्पिताः सन्ति तस्माज्जिघ्रन्ति पादपाः ॥
पादैः सलिल-पानाच्च व्याधीनाञ्चापि दर्शनात् ।
व्याधिप्रतिक्रियत्वाच्च विद्यते रसनं द्रुमे ॥
वक्त्रेणोत्पलनालेन यथोर्द्धं जलमाददेत् ।
तथा पवनसंयुक्तः पादैः पिवति पादपः ॥
सुखदुःखयोश्च ग्रहणात् छिन्नस्य च विरोहणात् ।
जीवं पश्यामि वृक्षाणामचैतन्यं न विद्यते ॥ शान्तिपर्व्व, महाभारत :

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