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Vada in Theory and Practice: Studies in Debates, Dialogues and Discussions in Indian Intellectual Discourses c6.s6.t1: Challenges to Śaṅkara’s Advaitavāda

Vāda in Theory and Practice: Studies in Debates, Dialogues and Discussions in Indian Intellectual Discourses c6.s6.t1

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Challenges to Śaṅkara’s Advaitavāda

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In the period between twelfth to eighteenth centuries, some of the renowned philosophers who created history by entering into diversified debates were Rāmānuja, Madhva and Madhusūdana Sarasvati. Rāmānuja derived his concept of soul from Śaṅkara and to an extent his philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita corroborated Śaṅkara’s postulations. The fundamental difference between Śaṅkara and Rāmānuja lies in their world-views. To Śaṅkara, the world is a *vivarta* (an appearance) while Rāmānuja regards it an evolution. According to Rāmānuja, the soul and the matter are different from *Brahman* in relation to the matter as being an object of enjoyment, and they are identical with Him as constituents of His body. The world of our perception is His *kāryāvasthā* (effected state). He exists in causal state when the world stands dissolved. All *jīvas* (souls) exist in him in subtle state and they just become manifest when He exercises His Will and creates them.

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Madhva, on the other hand, posited a potent challenge for the Advaitin with his uncompromising logic to prove the difference between God and the world. His basic argument is — if there is only one *Brahman* and nothing else, who then is making this statement that there is only *Brahman* and nothing else? He questions the ontological status of “nothing which is negated in God”.¹⁶⁷

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With their virulent of attacks and uncompromising adherence to dualism, Madhva and his followers, Vyāsatīrtha and Jayatīrtha, emerged as strongest critics of Śaṅkara’s monism. The debate continued till twentieth century. Madhva’s works are also known as vāda granthas. His philosophy became the most powerful rival of Advaita Vedānta and stimulated a tooth and nail fight between very opposite juxtapositions — Advaita vs. Dvaita, idealism vs. realism, identity vs. difference, etc.

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Veṅkaṭanātha also known as Vedāntadeśika (CE 1278–1369) stands next to Rāmānuja as a votary of Viśiṣṭādvaita. He was born at Tuppal near Kāñcī. He travelled far and wide including northern India to hold discussions on philosophical issues.

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Veṅkaṭādhvarin in his *Viśvaguṇādarśacampūḥ* (see Chap. 6) describes Vedāntadeśika as a great debater who could explain most difficult propositions in the debates and repeal the intoxication of the opponents.¹⁶⁸ Veṅkaṭādhvarin devotes as many as twelve verses to Vedāntadeśika (CE 1289–1300) with some very succinct prose passages. Unable to tolerate the praise showered on Vedāntadeśika, Kṛśānu, the reviler, asks his opponent Kṛśāśva in *Viśvaguṇādarśacampūḥ* — how can the words of a poet tender like the *campaka* flowers decorating the head of Goddess Sarasvatī be able to break the hearts of opponents in debates hard like stones?¹⁶⁹ Viśvāvasu, the protagonist, replies that the speech of the master of Vedānta is as tender as flowers and pleases the noble, but it is able to break the hearts of the enemies (the opponents in debate) like the tender foot of child Kṛṣṇa, the touch of which delighted Nandin and it could become as hard as a diamond in killing the demon Śakaṭāsura.¹⁷⁰

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Vedāntadeśika wrote in Sanskrit, Tamil and Maṇipravāḷam (a mixture of Tamil amd Prākṛt) also. His *Śatadūṣaṇī* is a treatise in refutation of the Advaita system, which started a chain of critiques (*dūṣaṇa* texts). Vedāntadeśika's *Vāditrayakhaṇḍana* is also a work of similar nature. He became a legendary figure even in his lifetime and several stories are current about his extraordinary scholarship and eloquence. It is said that he was blessed by the Lord Hayagrīva for always being a champion in the *vādāhavas* (battles of debates)¹⁷¹ and was supposed to be an incarnation of the bell given to his parents by Lord Veṅkaṭeśa Himself.¹⁷² Many of his contemporaries like Varadarāja, his own son, and Yatirāja had composed a *Dhyānalokas* (verses for meditation) in his worship.¹⁷³ Rāmānuja, the propounder of Viśiṣṭādvaita, was his maternal uncle and *guru*.

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Veṅkaṭanātha was challenged by Ḍiṇḍimakavi Sārvabhauma, who sent him in verse describing himself as a lion having reached *pakkaṇa* — the habitat of outcasts, and like Garuḍa being forced to roam in the assembly of water-snakes.¹⁷⁴ Veṅkaṭanātha sent him two verses as a befitting rejoinder¹⁷⁵ which wrecked the ego of Ḍiṇḍimakavi. After listening to the readings of Veṅkaṭanātha's epic *Yādavābhyudaya*, he became an ardent admirer of Veṅkaṭanātha and composed fine stanzas in his eulogy.¹⁷⁶

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Veṅkaṭanātha was a very amicable person. In a quarter of night he is said to have composed one thousand verses of the poem *Pādukāsahasram*. Unable to tolerate the overwhelming applause showered on him for this extraordinary feat, Varavara, poet, also started composing a poem of one thousand verses but his inspiration lasted only for a few verses and he was put to shame. Veṅkaṭanātha consoled him by dedicating a stanza. The stanza said:

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The she-pig produces hundred cubs instantly; a she-elephant after a long time gives birth to only one cub, but he becomes dear to kings.¹⁷⁷

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At the initiative of Vidyāraṇya, Harihara I (CE 1336-56), the king of Vijayanagara, sent a letter to him requesting him to grace the royal court of Vijayanagara. Sarvajña Siṁhabhūpāla (CE 1330-80), considered himself his disciple and approached him for enlightenment on the issues of *dharma*. Veṅkaṭanātha composed *Tattvasandeśa*, a text in Tamil and *Subhāṣitanīvī*, an anthology of verses in Sanskrit and sent him. He was constantly harassed by persons who were unable to tolerate the heights he had scaled.

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Veṅkaṭanātha had authored 115 works; of these sixty were in Sanskrit, the rest are bilingual — mixing Sanskrit and Tamil in Maṇipravāḷa style; or purely in Tamil.

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*Śatadūṣaṇī* (declamation of one hundred tenets) examines the various theories of Advaitavāda from the viewpoint of Rāmānuja’s philosophy. Out of one hundred sections called *vādas*, only sixty-six are presently available. *Vāditrayakhaṇḍana* is also a text refuting three *ācāryas* — Śaṅkara, Bhāskara and Yādava. Other works by Vedāntadeśika are — commentary on *Īśāvāsyopaniṣat*, *Tātparyacandrikā* (a commentary on *Gītābhāṣya* of Rāmānuja) and *Tattvamuktākalāpaḥ* (on Viśiṣṭādvaita philosophy in 500 verses). The last work has been cited by Mādhava in his *Sarvadarśanasaṁgraha*. *Adhikaraṇa* is a compendium of *Śrībhāṣya* on *Brahmasūtra* in 562 verses. This work was composed after *Śatadūṣaṇī*. *Saccharitrarakṣā* propounds the tenets of Viṣṇavism in three *adhikāras* citing profusely from Vedic Saṁhitās and Smṛtis. *Nikṣeparakṣā*, *Pāñcarātrarakṣā* and *Rahasyarakṣā* are his sectarian works. In *Nyāyapariśuddhi*, Veṅkaṭanātha establishes the authenticity of *Nyāyasūtras* of Gautama according to Vedas. Many of his works, viz. *Adhikaraṇadarpaṇa*, *Nigamaparimala* and *Vedārthasaṁgrahavyākhyāna*, etc. have been lost. He also authored *Seśvaramīmāṁsā*, *Mīmāṁsāpādukā*, *Tātparyacandrikā*, *Gītārthasaṁgraharakṣā*, *Nyāyaysiddhāñjana*, *Tattvaṭīkā*. *Cakārasamartham* is a *maṇḍana* text, written as a rejoinder to Vidyāraṇya’s criticism of the use of *ca* at a place in his *Śatadūṣaṇī*. *Nyāsaviṁśatiḥ* explains the concept of *nyāsa* or *prapatti*. *Damiḍopaniṣattātparyaratnāvalī* is a commentary in 130 verses on the Tamil Divyaprabandha of Śaṭhakopasūri. *Damiḍopaniṣattātsāraḥ* is a work of similar nature. His works in Maṇipravāḷa style are *Amṛtarañjanīrahasya*, *Amṛtavādinīrahasya*, *Paramatabhaṅga*, *Hastinīmāhātmya*, *Paramapadasopāna*, *Rahasyatrayasāra*, etc. Of these eighteen texts are known as *Laghurahasyas* explaining the core of his faith. Again eighteen texts are known as Drāviḍagāthās or Deśikaprabandhas. *Nigamaparimala* is not available. In *Paramatabhaṅga* he presents critiques of Lokāyata, Buddhism, Śaṅkara’s Advaita, Bhāskara and Yādava, Vyākaraṇa, Vaiśeṣika, Nyāya, Kaumārila, Prabhākara, Sāṁkhya, Yoga, Pāśupata, etc. Many other works in Sanskrit and Tamil are ascribed to him.¹⁷⁸ *Acyuasa-a-am* (*Avyutaśatakam*) is in Prākṛt, presenting a confluence of *bhakti* and *śṛṅgāra*. Apart from these, Veṅkaṭanātha composed twenty-four *strotrakāvyas*.

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Stories of his having defended the Draviḍa Āmnāya (scriptures in Tamil) when their authenticity was questioned by the followers of other faiths on the occasion of a Brahmotsava are also current.¹⁷⁹ At Raṅgapaṭṭana or Śrīraṅgam, when Sudarśanasūrya was challenged by some rivals to have debate with them, otherwise stop the daily worship of God Raṅganātha according to Pāñcarātra system, the former entrusted Vedāntadeśika to enter into a debate with them and when Vedāntadeśika emerged victorious in the debate he was given the title of Vedāntācārya by the God himself.¹⁸⁰ His detractors did not leave him even when he had moved to Ahīndranagaram and was delivering discourses for the King Devanātha there. At the behest of the king he debated with the adversaries again and after defeating them was honoured with the title of Kavitārkikacakravartī (sovereign of poets and philosophers) by the king. His followers documented these debates and compiled an anthology of them entitled *Paramatabhaṅga*.

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Madhva builds up a world-view through difference at five levels. God and soul differ from each other, God differs from the matter and matter differs from the soul. One soul differs from another, and there is difference from one matter to another. This difference is a reality. The world is also a reality. Bondage is also real and it is really destroyed by the grace of God and not through knowledge alone. This concept gave a pivotal position to *bhakti* (devotion to God) in Mādhva Vedānta, and enabled it to attract the masses. There is some affinity with Sāṁkhya, as *Prakṛti* is accepted as the material cause of the world. Madhva's Dvaita therefore became a chief combatant for the post-Śaṅkara Advaitins as Sāṁkhya was for Śaṅkara.

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Many of the works on philosophy, that were composed basically for challenging opponent schools, formed the base for a series of debates. *Tarkatāṇḍava* of Vyāsatīrtha,¹⁸¹ the fourth pontiff in Mādhva tradition, presents the interesting compendium of debates. There are works detailing debates between Śaivites and Vaiṣṇavites or between other sects. Campakeśācārya (fifteenth century) was an adherent of Viśiṣṭādvaita system. In his works like *Vedāntakaṇṭakoddhāra* and *Vādārtharatnamālā* he has taken up issues with the followers of other systems. He had written a prose-poem and a *prabandha* on *Rāmāyaṇa* theme, which are referred in his *Vādārtharatnamālā*. Tātadeśika or Tātārya (CE 1526-67) authored *Pañcamatabhañjana*, criticizing the Śaivites and upholding the tenets of Vaiṣṇavism.

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The tradition of debate between *Nyāyāmṛta* and *Advaitasiddhi* is spread to a span of 500 years and continued in the form of texts constantly composed from both the sides. Nṛsiṁhāśrama, one of the most celebrated philosophers in Advaita tradition of Vedānta, gave a rebuttal to *Nyāyāmṛtam*.

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