Vada in Theory and Practice: Studies in Debates, Dialogues and Discussions in Indian Intellectual Discourses c8.s10: Debates on the Concept of Mokṣa

Vāda in Theory and Practice: Studies in Debates, Dialogues and Discussions in Indian Intellectual Discourses c8.s10

Language: English

Debates on the Concept of Mokṣa

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The idea of emancipation or deliverance is treated in all schools of philosophy with diverse viewpoints. The Naiyāyikas hold that the state of *apavarga* (deliverance) is comprised of absolute absence of pain. The Vedāntins give the concept of *ānanda* (bliss). But *mokṣa* has distinctive nature amongst the different schools of Vedānta. In the Buddhist schools of Yogācāra and Vijñānavāda, the state of *nirvāṇa* is structured on negative dialecticism.

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The Vedāntin is of the view that the Naiyāyika’s proposition of *apavarga* as a state of absolute absence of pain is untenable, as the scriptures describe the soul untouched by pleasure and pain. In the state of salvation, the soul ceases to be an agent or a subject and does not have any experience or knowledge. It just becomes one with the Supreme Being — the *Brahman*.

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These systems also differ with each other in respect of the process, ways and means of attaining salvation. According to Nyāya, the true knowledge of sixteen categories (see Chap. 3) leads to *niḥśreyas* (state of deliverance). The Vaiśeṣika holds that *niḥśreyas* is attained by the knowledge of similarity and dissimilarity between the six categories defined in the system. The Mīmāṁsā regards the synthesis of knowledge and action (*jñānakarmasamuccaya*) as the means for *mokṣa*. On the other hand, Vedānta enumerates step by step process of *śravaṇa* (listening), *manana* (contemplation) and *nididhyāsana* (concentration). According to Rāmānuja and Madhva, *bhakti* (devotion) leads to *mokṣa*. The Advaitin would deny any categorization and differentiation in the state of *mokṣa*. On the contrary, Madhva holds four categories of *mokṣa* as well as gradations and stages in the state of *mokṣa*. The Naiyāyikas also say that one does not attain *apavarga* simply by true knowledge of the sixteen categories. One has to undergo the process of eradication of pain and *mithyā jñāna* to reach the state of absolute painlessness. The Vaiśeṣika also holds *dharma* as a subsidiary cause for the attainment of *mokṣa* apart from the true knowledge of the categories.

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In the system of Vijñanavāda, the understanding of *pratītyasamutpāda* (dependent origination) or *śūnya* leads to *nirvāṇa*.

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In recent times, Dayānanda rejected the theory of identification of *jīva* and *Brahman* in the state of liberation. According to him, *ātman* (the soul) experiences *ānanda* in liberation and he is also imbued with *guṇas* like *bala* (power) and *parākrama* (valour). Badarinatha Shukla revised Naiyāyika's view of *apavarga* to make room for the experience of *ānanda* in it. Their propositions are being taken up in the last chapter here.

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¹ अलङ्कारो ह्यस्माकं यद् ब्रह्मावगतौ सत्यां सर्वकर्तव्यताहानिः कृतकृत्यता चेति । — *Brahmasūtra, Śāṅkarabhāṣya*, p. 19

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² G.C. Pande, 1998, *Life and Thought of Śaṅkarācārya*, pp. 233-35.

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³ Ibid., p. 285.

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⁴ पुमानेव जगत्कर्ता जगद्धर्त्ताऽखिलेश्वरः । स्वाम्यर्थे भृत्यवद् यस्माज्जडवर्गः प्रवर्तते ।। — *Sāṁkhyasāra* of Vijñānabhikṣu, Uttarabhāga V.13, p. 33

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⁵ Ibid. V.24, p. 34.

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⁶ प्रकृतिशक्तिरजा प्रधानमव्यक्तं तमो मायाऽविद्येत्यादयः प्रकृतेः पर्यायाः । — Ibid., Pūrvabhāga, chap. III, p. 9

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⁷ यत्तु आधुनिका वेदान्तिब्रुवा दृश्यत्वेनैव प्रकृत्यादीनां द्रष्टृत्वेन च प्रकृत्याद्यखिलजडेभ्य आत्मविवेकं मन्यन्ते . . ., तन्न; आत्मा वा अरे द्रष्टव्यः इत्यादिश्रुतिभिरात्मनोऽपि दृश्यत्वात्, साक्षाद् दृश्यत्वविवक्षया च प्रकृत्यादेरसङ्ग्रहात् करणद्वारेणैव तद्दर्शनात् । — Ibid., p. 7

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⁸ *Lokāyata*, Introduction, p. xvii.

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⁹ *Tattavopaplavasiṁha*, Preface by Muni Sukhalalji Singhavi, p. 22.

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¹⁰ दुरुच्छेदं हि चार्वाकस्य चेष्टितम् । — *Sarvadarśanasaṁgraha*, chap. I, p. 3.

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¹¹ Kṛṣṇa Miśra's *Prabodhacandrodaya* is being discussed in Chap. 6. The antagonist in this play is the follower of Cārvāka philosophy. Appreciating the Cārvāka, he says: सर्वथा लोकायतमेव शास्त्रम्, यत्र प्रत्यक्षमेव प्रमाणम्, पृथिव्यप्तेजोवायवस्तत्त्वानि अर्थकामौ पुरुषार्थौ, भूतान्येव चेतयन्ते । नास्ति परलोकः, मृत्युरेवापवर्गः । तदेतदस्मदभिप्रायानुबन्धिना

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वाचस्पतिना प्रणीय चार्वाकाय समर्पितम्। तेन च शिष्योपशिष्यद्वारेणास्मिंल्लोके बहुलीकृतं तन्त्रम्। — *Prabodhacandrodaya*, Act II, pp. 70-71

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¹² Max Müller, 1919, *Six Systems of Indian Philosophy*.

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¹³ *Ṛgveda* X.71-72.

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¹⁴ Ibid. VIII.96.15.

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¹⁵ बृहस्पतिर्वै शुक्रो भूत्वा इन्द्रस्याभयायासुरेभ्यः क्षयायेमां विद्यामसृजत् तया शिवमशिवमिस्यादिसदशिवं शिवमिसि वेदादिशास्तर्हिंसकधर्माभिध्यानस्त्रिवति वदन्ति। — *Maitrāyaṇī Upaniṣad* VII.9. It is said that Bṛhaspati struck Gāyatrī and smashed her head into pieces. Gāyatrī being immortal, every bit of her brain remained alive. Again in *Mahābhārata*, Bṛhaspati is described as a sceptic and has a long discussion with Manu who finally prevails upon him to accept the Vedic order.

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¹⁶ प्रायेणेव हि मीमांसा लोके लोकायतीकृता। तामास्तिकपथे कर्तुमयं यत्नः कृतो मया।। *Ślokavārttika*, Pratijñāsūtra, X. *Nyāyaratnākara* says — नित्यकर्मणां फलं नास्तीति बह्पसिद्धान्तपरिग्रहेण मीमांसा भर्तृमित्रदिभिर्लोके लोकायतीकृता। — quoted in *Cārvākaṣaṣṭi*, Gagandeo Giri, fn. 1, p. 43

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¹⁷ तनुतरचित्ताङ्कुरको विषयरसैर्यादि न सिच्यते शुद्धैः। गगनव्यापी फलदः कल्पतरुत्वं कथं लभते।। — *Caryāgītikośa*

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¹⁸ रागेण बध्यते लोको रागेणैव विमुच्यते। — *Hevrajratantra* II.2.51

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¹⁹ Dakshina Ranjan Shastri served as professor of Sanskrit at the Sanskrit College of Calcutta which was one of the premier institution for traditional education of Sanskrit. He also taught at Krishnanagar Sanskrit College in Nadia. His father Pt. Candrakishore had earned the title of Vidyāvācaspati and was also known as a poet. He dedicated the Bangla edition of his *Cārvākadarśana* published in *Kolkata-purogāmī* in 1959 to his elder brother and teacher Pt. Durga Prasad, and the Sanskrit treatise *Cārvākaṣaṣṭi* to his father Pt. Candrakishore. It is interesting to note that he describes his father as a man devoted to *dharma*, a *vajra* (lethal weapon) for the lofty mountain of the *nāstika mata*. Pt. Anand Jha was another traditional Sanskrit scholar who wrote a work called *Cārvākadarśana*.

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²⁰ The following aphorisms of Brahaspati are cited by Bhāskarācārya in his *bhāṣya* on *Brahmasūtra* III.3.53 – पृथिव्यप्तेजोवायुरिति तत्त्वानि (1), तत् समुदाये शरीरेन्द्रियविषयसंज्ञा (2), तेभ्यश्चैतन्यम् (3), किण्वादिभ्यो मदशक्तिवत् (4)।

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²¹ *Mahābhārata*, Śāntiparva, chaps. 38-39.

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²² *Viṣṇu Purāṇa* III.17-18, 82, 85.

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²³ *Padma Purāṇa*, Sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa, V.13.318-40.

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²⁴ *Brahmasūtra*, *Śāṅkarabhāṣya* II.3.5.

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²⁵ लोकायतमतं प्राज्ञैर्ज्ञेयं पापौधकारणम्। इत्थं तत्त्वविलोमं यत् तन्न ज्ञानविवर्धनम्। — *Śāstrārthavārtāsamuccaya* I.110

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²⁶ *Śāstrārthavārtāsamuccaya* I.31-34.

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²⁷ Ibid. I.39.

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²⁸ *Nyāyakusumāñjali* I.15.

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²⁹ K. Vishweshvari Amma, 1985, *Udayana and His Philosophy*, p. 36.

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³⁰ Zahiruddin Ahmed, 2007, *Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy in India and Tibet*, p. 30.

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³¹ G.C. Pande, 1998, op. cit., p. 256.

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³² Ibid.

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³³ *Yuktiṣaṣṭikārikā* 51.

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³⁴ *Śāstrārthavārtāsamuccaya* VI.464-66.

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³⁵ *Śāṅkarabhāṣya* on *Kena Upaniṣad* 2.3.

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³⁶ देहमात्रं चैतन्यविशिष्टमात्मेति प्राकृता जना लोकायतिकाश्च प्रतिपन्नाः । इन्द्रियाण्येव चेतनान्यात्मेत्यपरे । मन इत्यन्ये । विज्ञानमात्रं क्षणिकमित्येके । शून्यमित्यपरे । अस्ति देहादिव्यतिरिक्त ◌ः संसारी कर्ता भोक्तेत्यपरे । भोक्तैव केवलं न कर्तेत्येके । अस्ति तद्व्यतिरिक्तः सर्वज्ञः सर्वशक्तिरिति केचित् । आत्मा स भोक्तुरित्यपरे । एवं बहवो विप्रतिपन्नाः युक्ति- वाक्यतदाभाससमाश्रयाः सन्तः । — *Brahmasūtra, Śāṅkarabhāṣya*, p. 6

Linked texts (21)

Nyāyakusumāñjali — Udayana, Sanskrit
Kaṭhopaniṣad — Sanskrit
Maitrāyaṇīyopaniṣad — Sanskrit
Brahmasūtra — Bādarāyaṇa, Sanskrit
Hevajratantra — Sanskrit
Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Padmapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha — Mādhava, Sanskrit
Advaitasiddhi — Madhusūdana Sarasvatī 1570, Sanskrit
Sāṃkhyasāra — Vijñānabhikṣu 1550, Sanskrit
Tattvopaplavasiṃha — Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa, Sanskrit
تحقيق ما للهند من مقولة مقبولة في العقل أو مرذولة — Arabic
Tantravārttika — Kumārila Bhaṭṭa, Sanskrit
Bārhaspatyasūtra — Bṛhaspati, Sanskrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Viṣṇupurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Pramāṇavārttika — Dharmakīrti, Sanskrit
Hetubindu — Dharmakīrti, Sanskrit
Vādanyāya — Dharmakīrti, Sanskrit
Prabodhacandrodaya — Kṛṣṇamiśra, Sanskrit
Caryāgītikoṣa — Bengali