English (machine translation)

Translation of 仁王護國般若經疏

Language: English
Extent: 260 passages, 59,970 words
Text: complete digital text
Source: pramana-mt · Machine translation by Gemini 3.8 Flash (2026-10-21) of in.bauddha.taisho.1705 · Machine output without human authorship: no copyright is claimed (CC0 1.0). The original text keeps its own…

1 — 30 parts
2 — 57 parts
3 — 31 parts
4 — 46 parts
5 — 96 parts

Text

1.1

Preface to the Commentary on the Prajñā Sūtra of the Benevolent Kings for the Protection of the State

1.2

Composed by Chao Shuozhi, Gentleman for Court Audiences, Commandant of Agile Cavalry, and Grantee of the Scarlet Fish Bag

During the Chen and Sui periods, Master Zhizhe of Tiantai, having remotely inherited Nāgārjuna's lineage, established a great teaching. Transmitted through nine generations, it reached Jingxi [Zhanran]. After Jingxi, it was transmitted through another nine generations to the Silla monk Pŏmyung. Pŏmyung transmitted it to Iŭng, and Iŭng transmitted it to Yŏngsun; they were all people of Silla. For this reason, this teaching spread to Japan and flourished overseas. When the Central Plains suffered warfare and chaos, canonical texts were wiped out; only this teaching was one that could not perish, yet it was also difficult to preserve. However, as the bright sun is about to emerge, the morning clouds rise first; when a true person responds to the turning point of fortune, cultural brilliance naturally appears. At the beginning of our Song dynasty, this teaching gradually sailed across the sea and entered Wu and Yue; the works like the three major treatises transmitted in the present age are examples of this. Yet there were still some texts that remained behind and did not arrive, as well as those that arrived but were not authentic originals. There were two editions of the Commentary on the Sūtra of the Benevolent Kings that had arrived earlier, but everyone rejected them as spurious. Formerly, after receiving the pratyekabuddha hair sent by Zen Master Shin of Japan and answering his twenty inquiries on doctrine, Fazhi [Zhili] requested the commentary he had referred to as the Commentary on the Sūtra of the Benevolent Kings. Shin then entrusted it to a seafaring vessel. Before long, amidst the voyage, violent winds and alarming waves arose. Thinking there was no other way to appease the wrath of the dragons and scaly beasts, the mariners hastily cast this commentary into the sea to pacify them. Fazhi then sought out two monks with strong memories to visit Shin, directing them to recite and memorize it to bring it back; unfortunately, the two monks died in Japan. At the beginning of the Yuanfeng reign, a maritime merchant finally brought the present three-fascicle Commentary on the Benevolent Kings to Siming. Thereupon, the elderly monk Ruxun obtained it through fortunate circumstances. Its prose is clear while its gist is subtle; its words are concise while its meaning is broad. Taking the Qin translation as its base, the momentum of its meaning resembles the Commentary on the Treatise on the Contemplation of Mind; in truth, it was recorded by Zhang'an from the exposition of Zhizhe. Xun's way was solitary and companionless; he studied the ancient teachings, which are difficult to understand, lived in poverty, and lacked resources, having no means to enhance the weighty importance of this sūtra by even a hair's breadth. He would frequently point to it and sigh, saying: 'It arrived so late! Studying it is so difficult! I would rather lock it up amidst dust and let the silverfish gorge on it than bring it down from the desk to show others.' Alas! How could this commentary fail to rank alongside the three major treatises, remaining with its light concealed and its brilliance buried, as if still as remote as the overseas lands? This year, Xun is seventy-six years old. One day, embracing it, he wept and said: 'Is it about to perish along with me? My previous resolve was wrong!' Encountering Chao Shuozhi of Mount Song, he said: 'Why not write a preface for me to circulate it?' Shuozhi considered himself: 'How am I worthy to participate in this?' Yet he once remarked: 'If Zhizhe had been born before the Qi and Liang dynasties, Bodhidharma would not have had to come to the East. Zhizhe exhausted dharmatā to establish śamatha-vipaśyanā, tracing the source of Śākyamuni's Way and encapsulating the purport of Bodhidharma. Now it is flourishing in Yue; in days to come, it will surely spread throughout the world. How could this text alone be concealed? I only regret that I am too old to live to see it.' Thus I provide this brief preface regarding its origins.

1.4

Prefaced on the guimao day in the fourth month of the renchen year, the second year of the Zhenghe reign [1112].

1.5

Expounded by Great Master Zhizhe of Tiantai; recorded by his disciple Guanding

1.6

As a rule, before expounding any sūtra, the Great Master sets forth the fivefold profound meaning: first, explaining the title; second, discerning the substance; third, clarifying the gist; fourth, discussing the function; and fifth, classifying the teachings. This sūtra takes person and phenomenon as its title, dharmatā as its substance, one's own practice of cause and effect as its gist, the provisional and ultimate wisdoms as its function, and the Mahāyāna ripened butter as its doctrinal characteristic. Regarding the title, there are general and specific aspects. The single character 'sūtra' is general to all scriptures. 'The Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra of the Benevolent Kings for the Protection of the State Spoken by the Buddha' is specific. Furthermore, 'The Protection of the State by the Benevolent Kings Spoken by the Buddha' distinguishes this scripture, whereas 'Prajñāpāramitā' is common to the various scriptures. Moreover, 'The Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra of the Benevolent Kings for the Protection of the State Spoken by the Buddha' is the general designation for the entire text, while 'Introductory Chapter, Number One' is the specific name within the text. However, the establishment of titles in the various sūtras differs: some are based solely on phenomena, as in the Nirvāṇa Sūtra; some are based solely on persons, as in the Amitābha Sūtra; some are drawn solely from metaphors, as in the Brahmajāla Sūtra; some entitle both person and phenomenon, as in the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa and this sūtra; some present both phenomenon and metaphor, as in the Lotus Sūtra; and some are complete with all three, as in the Avataṃsaka Sūtra.

1.7

The term 'Buddha' means complete with virtue: self-awakening distinguishes him from ordinary people; awakening others distinguishes him from the noble ones [of the two vehicles]; and the perfection of awakening distinguishes him from the bodhisattvas. Proclaiming with the eight tones of voice is called 'spoken'. This refers to the person capable of speaking.

1.8

From 'Benevolent King' onward clarifies the Dharma that is spoken. Bestowing benevolence and spreading virtue is called 'benevolence'; unified governance with mastery is called 'king'. The benevolent king is the protector; the state is what is protected. This is because the benevolent king governs the state by means of the Way. In relation to prajñā, prajñā is the protector, and the benevolent king is what is protected, because by upholding prajñā, the benevolent king enjoys peace and security. If viewed from the perspective that the king can transmit the Dharma, then the king is the protector, and prajñā is what is protected. Furthermore, 'benevolent' (ren) means 'forbearing' (ren): hearing good, he does not immediately rejoice; hearing evil, he does not immediately anger; because he can bear with both good and evil, he is said to be forbearing. 'King' means to unify, because the four quarters turn to his unification. This is the explanation according to causes and conditions. In terms of the teachings, seeing phenomena arise, one knows that arising is real; seeing phenomena cease, cessation is then emptiness; because of emptiness, the states of the six sensory objects and the rest remain unmoved and unturned. When the bondages of the three realms are exhausted, the king enjoys peace and security; this attainment of the two vehicles is called the 'benevolent king'. This is the intent of the Tripiṭaka teaching. One attains mastery within the land where ordinary and noble beings dwell together. If one contemplates that the form of phenomena is itself emptiness, unarisen and unceasing, like an illusion and like an apparition, the afflictions of the three realms are severed all at once, and one dwells within the conjured city outside the realms; conceiving that one has already crossed over and conceiving peace and security, these are the practitioners of the three vehicles who together practice the ten stages, able to protect the state of the conjured city of expedient means with remainder, each obtaining the title of 'king'. This is the intent of the shared teaching. If one contemplates that the emptiness of phenomena is itself form, because form is boundless, the dharmas such as prajñā are also boundless; although boundless, they do not obstruct the mind, just as a large lid fits a large box. Yet boundless dharmas reside in a single mind, and each single dharma contains all buddha-dharmas; from the initial stage up to wondrous awakening, one is progressively perfected, dwelling upon the lotus pedestal, unmoved and unturned yet capable of moving and turning; these are the bodhisattvas of the daśabhūmi who abide in the six [pāramitās] such as dāna, each becoming a king. This is the intent of the distinctive teaching. If one contemplates that phenomena are originally unarisen and now non-ceasing; though free of arising and cessation, arising and cessation are distinctly manifest; illuminated simultaneously and extinguished simultaneously, one accords with the Middle Way, vast as the dharmadhātu and ultimate as empty space; from the initial abode up to the Buddha stage, through forty-two minds, one progressively and clearly realizes the principle of the Middle Way, dwelling in the Ever-Silent Light, each obtaining the title of 'king'. This is the intent of the perfect teaching. Furthermore, in the Tripiṭaka teaching, because the afflictions of the arhats and pratyekabuddhas are exhausted, they attain the status of benevolent king, whereas bodhisattvas and those in the stages of fruits and directions of forbearance who have not yet exhausted the afflictions of view and thought are only called 'kings' and not 'benevolent'; the Buddha stage of the shared teaching, wondrous awakening of the distinctive teaching, and the ultimate fruit of the perfect teaching are each benevolent kings. Within each teaching, there is naturally superiority and inferiority; if not benevolent, then they are merely kings. In terms of original and trace, the benevolent kings of the three teachings are the traces, while the benevolent king of the perfect teaching is the origin. Analyzing origin and trace in stages: the ten practices of the perfect teaching serve as the origin for the distinctive teaching; the Buddha stage of the shared teaching is the trace of the distinctive teaching; and the two vehicles of the Tripiṭaka teaching are the origin within the shared teaching. Thus, evolving progressively, each teaching has its own origin and traces, and so forth. As for contemplation of mind: contemplating the phenomena of arising and cessation, one sees that form exists, analyzes it until emptiness, and the mind attains mastery over form; this is the benevolent king of the mind contemplation on arising and cessation. Contemplating that form is itself emptiness, with mastery over both emptiness and form; this is the benevolent king of the mind contemplation on non-arising. If one contemplates that emptiness is itself form, sequentially entering the correct contemplation of the Middle Way; this is the benevolent king of the mind contemplation on the immeasurable. If one contemplates that form and emptiness, emptiness and form, are non-dual yet dual, dual yet non-dual, simultaneously illuminated and simultaneously extinguished; this is the dharmatā threefold contemplation in a single mind and a single mind in the threefold contemplation; like the vertical eye of Maheśvara, neither horizontal nor vertical, attaining mastery; this is the benevolent king of the mind contemplation of the perfect teaching. Our present sage ruler's transformation through the Way is measureless; nurturing the multitude of living beings like children, his benevolent grace extends everywhere; constantly using the three contemplations to bring peace and security to body and mind, his traces are beyond fathoming, and his origin is truly difficult to fathom.

1.9

'Prajñā' is rendered here as wisdom (zhihuì); this is the explanation found in the forty-second fascicle of the Treatise on the Great Prajñāpāramitā, which was also adopted by Dharma Master Kaishan Zhizang. In the seventieth fascicle of the Treatise, there is yet another explanation, which states: 'Prajñā cannot be weighed. Prajñā is extremely profound and exceedingly heavy, whereas wisdom is light and shallow; therefore, it cannot be weighed.' Master Min of Zhuangyan used this passage to argue that the name 'prajñā' contains multiple meanings, whereas 'wisdom' is only a single gate, and hence not an accurate translation. Examining the expositions of these two masters, each leads to disputes; now I shall harmonize them. In general, there are two kinds of prajñā: first, ultimate; second, provisional. The provisional can indeed be translated, whereas the ultimate cannot. The ultimate belongs to the perfect teaching, whereas the provisional belongs to the preceding three. Furthermore, the provisional cannot be translated, as in the Tripiṭaka teaching where real form cannot be made identical to emptiness; the ultimate can indeed be translated, as in the three wisdoms: the sarvajñatā of the shared teaching, the mārgākārajñatā of the distinctive teaching, and the sarvākārajñatā of the perfect teaching. How can each person cling firmly to a single view to restrict the universal expanse? A blazing fire cannot be grasped; the truth must have its proper place. However, as for zhi (knowledge) and hui (insight/wisdom), scriptures and treatises explain them differently. The *Tattvasiddhi-śāstra combines them in explanation, stating: 'True insight is called knowledge,' meaning that insight is knowledge. The Vimalakīrtinirdeśa explains them separately: 'Knowing the mental states of all sentient beings and expounding the Dharma in accordance with them gives rise to the activities of knowledge; neither grasping nor rejecting, entering the gate of the single mark, gives rise to the activities of insight.' The commentary explains: knowledge is existence, insight is emptiness; having knowledge, one does not dwell in emptiness; having insight, one does not dwell in existence. Now, this prajñā has been completely translated across eight texts. Someone says: 'The Heavenly King text is included within the Benevolent Kings class.' This explanation is not acceptable. If, as in the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, it clarifies that human kings are also heavenly kings, then this would be acceptable.

1.10

Question: The characters for 'human' (人) and 'benevolent' (仁) are different; why are they considered equivalent? Answer: The Great Scripture states: 'Because they possess benevolent grace, they are called humans.' The Laozi states: 'The sage is not benevolent; he treats the common people as straw dogs.' Thus we know that a human king practices benevolence without seeking repayment for his kindness. If he is a lord who turns his back on the Way, he is merely a human and not benevolent; if he is a lord who accords with the Way, he is both a human and benevolent.

1.11

Question: What is the meaning of benevolence (仁)? Answer: If we analyze the meaning from the character itself, the principle is easily clarified. The upper stroke represents the virtue of Heaven; the lower stroke represents the virtue of Earth; and the human radical represents the virtue of Man. The sage ruler's Way matches creation and transformation, and his virtue joins the Three Powers; therefore, he is called a benevolent king.

1.12

Question: People of old said that the Benevolent King Sūtra is not an authentic transmission and translation. How is this matter [to be understood]?
Answer: One of little learning and small wisdom is deeply pitiable. How could one, merely from not having seen it in a catalogue, say that it is not an authentic translation? The ignorant person by the sea does not believe that mountain trees resemble fish; Xia Ge likewise said that in ancient beginnings there were no things. Alas, the blind reproach the crystal jewel! Furthermore, according to the text below, there are naturally two versions: first, the extensive exposition, as the "Scattering Flowers Chapter" says: "At that time, the sixteen great kings, having heard the hundred thousand kotis of verses on prajñāpāramitā expounded by the Buddha, scattered flowers in offering"; second, the abridged version, which is the present text of the sūtra.
The translators were different, with three versions across time: first, in the Yongjia era of the Jin dynasty, the Yuezhi Tripiṭaka Master Dharmarakṣa—called Fahu in Jin—translated two fascicles entitled Benevolent King Prajñā. Second, in the third year of Hongshi of the illegitimate Qin, Kumārajīva translated two fascicles at the detached villa in the Xiaoyao Garden in Chang'an, entitled Buddha's Exposition of the Benevolent Kings' Prajñāpāramitā for the Protection of the State. Third, Paramārtha of the Liang dynasty, in the Datong era, translated one fascicle at Shiyin Temple in Yuzhang, entitled Benevolent King Prajñā Sūtra, with a commentary in six fascicles. Although there are three versions, the Qin version is the most thorough, according to Fei Changfang's Catalogue of the Canonical Scriptures.

1.13

"Pāramitā" means "reaching the culmination of affairs" here, and also "reaching the other shore." Saṃsāra is this shore, nirvāṇa is the other shore, the afflictions are the midstream, and the six perfections are the raft—this is the explanation in terms of causes and conditions. In the Tripiṭaka [teaching], real existence is this shore, the cessation of real existence is the other shore, [the afflictions of] view and thought are the midstream, and the eightfold noble path is the raft. The shared teaching takes form as this shore, form being identical to emptiness as the other shore, view and thought as the midstream, and the six perfections as the raft. The distinctive teaching takes form and emptiness as this shore, emptiness being identical to form as the other shore, ignorance as the midstream, and the immeasurable practices as the raft. The perfect teaching takes form and emptiness, emptiness and form, being not-two yet two as this shore, two yet without duality as the other shore, ignorance as the midstream, and a single practice being immeasurable practices, immeasurable practices being a single practice as the raft. Traversing in accordance with the aforementioned teachings is called "reaching the other shore." This is the explanation according to the teachings. In the contemplation of emptiness, contemplating form as identical to emptiness and form ceasing into emptiness, though skilful or clumsy, equally cut off view and thought, and in this terms this and the other shore are discussed. In the contemplation of the provisional, contemplating the three provisionalities to attain the principle discusses this and the other shore. In the contemplation of the Middle, this and the other shore are discussed [in the stages] before the ten faiths and after the ten abodes. This is the explanation in terms of contemplation of mind. Whether sūtra is translated or left untranslated, each possesses five meanings, fully detailed in the Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sūtra and so forth. According to the teachings, all six sense dusts are sūtras. A sūtra says: "Or performing buddha-work by means of light"—that is, the dust of form is a sūtra. "Or performing buddha-work by means of sounds"—that is, sound is a sūtra. "Or performing buddha-work by means of the fragrance of food"—truly that is, the dust of fragrance is a sūtra. Eating food and absorbing nourishment is the dust of taste as a sūtra. Moving the lips and stirring the tongue is the dust of touch as a sūtra. Utter silence without sound, wherein the bodhisattvas and others enter samādhi, is the dust of mental objects as a sūtra. Each individual sense dust and faculty has its explanation according to the teachings, original and trace, and contemplation of mind. Moreover, merely taking written words as the warp and mental activity as the weft can produce the cloth of right awakening; hence, worldly warp threads are taken as an analogy.

1.14

"Preface" means cause, and also sequence. "Chapter" in Sanskrit is *varga*, translated here as *pin*, meaning category. When meanings and categories follow one another, that forms a chapter. "Number" is intended to prevent confusion. "One" means the sense is at the beginning. The explanation of the title is concluded.

1.15

Second, concerning discerning the substance: Some say that text and meaning are the substance; this is a general explanation. Some say that signlessness is the substance; but all four teachings have signlessness, and signlessness is ever vague, so this is also a general explanation. Some say that the five patiences and the daśabhūmi are the substance, as the sūtra below says, "The five patiences are the bodhisattva dharma," and having fully listed the five patiences, concludes: "This is called all buddhas and bodhisattvas practicing prajñāpāramitā." Hence we know that by practicing prajñā, one realizes the five patiences. Since none of all the buddhas and bodhisattvas fail to become noble ones through the five patiences, they take the five patiences and the daśabhūmi as the substance. Now we do not hold this to be so. First, to explain the word "substance": substance is principle and order—each treating their own kin as kin, each treating their own sons as sons, with ruler and minister maintaining moderation. If there were no substance, there would be no principle. Supramundane dharmas are also like this: good and evil, ordinary beings and noble ones, bodhisattvas and buddhas, none depart from the dharma-nature; it specifically points to dharmatā as the substance. The Samantabhadra Contemplation says: "The cause of the Great Vehicle is the dharmatā of all phenomena; the fruit of the Great Vehicle is also the dharmatā of all phenomena." Dharmatā is precisely the dharma-nature; relying on this dharma-nature cause, one attains the dharma-nature fruit. Hence we know that this sūtra takes dharmatā as its substance. If discussed distinctively, prajñā is of two kinds: first, that spoken in common with the persons of the two vehicles; second, that not in common. Based on this, dharmatā is also of two kinds: first, common; second, uncommon. The common sees only emptiness and does not see non-emptiness, does not cut off ignorance but only eliminates view and thought; this is the one-sided true dharmatā. The uncommon is called the dharmatā of the Middle Way, which in the distinctive teaching is practiced sequentially prior to the bhūmis and realized only at the first bhūmi; while in the perfect teaching, from the first abode through to the buddha-fruit in a single mind, all are called perfect realization. If discussing the provisional and ultimate, the common is the provisional of transforming others, and the uncommon is the ultimate of one's own practice, and so forth. According to the teachings, prajñā is shared, lacking only the Tripiṭaka. There are the daśabhūmi practiced in common by the three vehicles; there is the distinctive entering the shared, and the perfect entering the shared. The shared is central while the two are secondary; that is, the shared and distinctive are provisional, and the perfect teaching is ultimate. Although this sūtra contains three teachings, it specifically takes the perfect dharmatā as its substance.

1.16

Third, clarifying the gist: "Gist" means the essential point, namely the cause and fruit of the Buddha's own practice taken as the gist. Some take the correct contemplation of non-arising as the gist, departing from the two extremes of existence and non-existence, provisionally called the Middle Way. Hence the text below says: "Prajñā has no knowing and no seeing, no practicing and no receiving, no arising and no ceasing." This is the intention of the shared teaching; it attains only the provisional and misses the ultimate. Now we take the cause and fruit of the Buddha's own practice as the essential gist, causing all listeners to rejoice and increase their practice, so that not a single form or single fragrance is not prajñā. The true wisdom of prajñā departs from existence and departs from non-existence; though departing from existence and non-existence, existence and non-existence are fully apparent; though fully apparent, they are intrinsically signless; therefore, the signless cause and fruit are taken as the gist.

1.17

Question: How do the gist and the substance differ?
Answer: The gist is like the headrope [of a net] or the collar [of a robe]; the substance is like the meshes or the fur. Shake the collar and the fur rises; pull the headrope and the meshes open—such is the meaning of the gist and the substance. Again, it is like hairpins and bracelets: gold and silver are the substance, and the craftsman fashioning them is the gist. Here, the principle of dharmatā is the substance, and cultivating the cause to attain the fruit is the gist, and so forth.

1.18

Fourth, discerning the function: "Function" means efficacy and operation. Some say this sūtra takes inner and outer protection as its function. As for inner protection, the text below says: "Expounding for all bodhisattvas the causes and conditions of protecting the buddha-fruit, and the causes and conditions of protecting the practices of the daśabhūmi." As for outer protection, the text below says: "I now expound for you the causes and conditions of protecting the state, causing the land to obtain peace, the seven calamities not to arise, disasters not to be produced, and the myriad people to be peaceful and happy"—this is called outer protection. This captures only one mundane and one ultimate, and the ultimate is moreover undetermined, for the shared, distinctive, and perfect all have the daśabhūmi as protection. Why? Because the daśabhūmi cannot be wholly relied upon. Now we take the two wisdoms of all buddhas as the efficacy and operation, for all Tathāgatas illuminate themselves with ultimate wisdom and illuminate others with provisional wisdom. However, this sūtra has three kinds of provisional and ultimate: in the shared and distinctive, although there is ultimate wisdom, it is also called provisional; in the perfect teaching, although there is provisional, it is collectively called ultimate. This is because the perfect teaching is the two wisdoms of the Buddha's own practice: illuminating principle is discerning capacities, and discerning capacities is illuminating principle. It is like Sarvārthasiddha drawing his ancestral king's bow to the full, which is called "efficacy"; piercing seven iron drums, passing through an Iron Ring Mountain, and penetrating the earth to reach the water, which is called "operation." The efficacy and operation of the shared and distinctive are feeble, like an ordinary man's bow and arrow. Why? Because they commonly receive the two wisdoms for transforming others, or their illumination of principle is not universal, or they know it only sequentially; they are not like the perfect illumination and perfect realization of the perfect teaching. Therefore, the two wisdoms within the perfect are taken as the function. That is, provisional wisdom protects lands such as the land where ordinary and noble beings dwell together, the land of expedient means with remainder, and the land of true reward, causing the seven calamities not to arise; ultimate wisdom protects the causes and fruits of the forty-two minds of the perfect teaching. The sūtra says: "the causes and conditions of protecting the practices of the daśabhūmi"—this refers generally to the daśabhūmi practiced across the three teachings, and so forth.

1.19

Fifth, clarifying the characteristics of the teachings: To propagate the correct Dharma, one must recognize whether the teaching is partial or perfect, fully explained in the Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sūtra; now it will be briefly clarified. "Teaching" means the words of the noble one bestowed upon those below. "Characteristics" means distinguishing similarities and differences. The section of this sūtra belongs to Prajñā; the teaching pertains to the Mahāyāna gate; it is a sūtra of the flavor of ripened butter, expounding the causes and conditions of protecting the buddha-fruit and protecting the practices of the daśabhūmi. Furthermore, the king asks how Mahāyāna illuminates, so we know it clearly is not the Tripiṭaka teaching. Although there are eight verses speaking of impermanence, arising, ceasing, and such matters, this is merely citing the past hundred Dharma masters using the Hinayāna to speak of the instability of the worldly realm in order to urge King Samantaprabhā to renounce his state, which belongs to auxiliary practices and is not the primary exposition of the present sūtra.

1.20

Next is entering the text to explain it. In the land of Cīnasthāna, expositions have differed: some divide the text into sections and others do not. Just as the Dàzhìdù lùn's commentary on the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā does not divide it into rubrics, while Vasubandhu's commentary on the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra indeed divides the text. Dào'ān separately posited the preface, the main body, and the dissemination, whereas Liú Qiú simply followed the text to explain it. This too is merely human preference—like tastes for orchids or chrysanthemums—being different; the intent lies in penetrating the arcane, not in dwelling on contingent matters. For now, we rely on dividing the text. Furthermore, when a sage preaches the Dharma, it must proceed by degrees; therefore, the preface section is clarified first. When the preface is set forth, the main part is manifested to benefit those present at the time; this is called the section of the main discourse. To let sentient beings of future ages equally share in the benefit of the Dharma is called the section of dissemination. This sūtra has eight chapters: the 'Introductory Chapter' is the preface section; the six chapters from 'Contemplating Emptiness' onward are the section of the main discourse; and the 'Entrustment Chapter' is the section of dissemination. Looking at the text of the sūtra itself, from the end of the 'Upholding Chapter' where the Buddha addresses Candraraprabha onwards, it is indeed the section of dissemination, and so forth. Now, first, there are two prefaces: first, the preface attesting to credibility; second, the initiating preface. They are also called the common preface and the specific preface; also called the Tathāgata's preface and Ānanda's preface; also called the pre-sūtra preface and the post-sūtra preface. The six events attesting to the sūtra are called the preface attesting to credibility; giving rise to and launching the main gist is called the initiating preface. What is common to all sūtras is called the common preface; what is unique to this sūtra is called the specific preface. What was spoken by the golden mouth is called the Tathāgata's preface; Ānanda's testimony of credibility is called Ānanda's preface. Because it was when the Buddha was present, it is called the pre-sūtra preface; what was set down by the compilers is called the post-sūtra preface. For now, we rely on the first [pair of terms]. From 'Thus' down to 'sat together' is called the preface attesting to credibility. From 'At that time, the Ten Epithets' downward is the initiating preface. Regarding the preface attesting to credibility, the Dàzhìdù lùn says: 'The Buddha was lying down with his head to the north in the śāla grove in Kuśinagara, about to enter nirvāṇa. At that time, Ānanda had not yet eliminated affectionate attachment, and his mind sank into an ocean of sorrow. Aniruddha said to Ānanda: "You are the custodian of the Dharma treasury; you should not, like an ordinary person, drown yourself in an ocean of sorrow. The Buddha is about to entrust the Dharma to you; if you are now sorrowful and despondent, you will fail in what you are to receive. You ought to ask the Buddha: 'After the parinirvāṇa, how shall we practice the Path? Who shall be our master? How shall we dwell together with the foul-mouthed Chanda? What words should be placed at the beginning of the sūtras spoken by the Buddha?'" When Ānanda heard this, his sorrowful mind awoke a little, and he asked about these matters in full beside the couch behind the Buddha. The Buddha answered: "Dwell by relying on the four applications of mindfulness. The precepts of the sūtras of liberation are your great master. Deal with the monk Chanda according to the method of Brahmā. If his mind must reform, teach him the Kātyāyana Sūtra, and he will attain the Path. In the precious Dharma gathered by me over three asaṃkhyeya kalpas, at the beginning one should place: 'Thus have I heard: at one time the Buddha was in such-and-such a direction, in such-and-such a country, in such-and-such a grove.' In my Dharma-door, one should speak thus at the beginning. Why? Because the sūtras of the buddhas of the three times all have these words, and so forth."' Furthermore, Mahākāśyapa and the others asked Ānanda: 'Where did the Buddha first preach the Dharma? What Dharma did he preach?' Ānanda replied: 'Thus have I heard: at one time the Buddha was in the Deer Park of the Rṣis in Vārāṇasī, preaching the noble truth of suffering for the five monks.' At that time, all in the great assembly who heard it believed.' It is fully stated as in the second fascicle of the Dàzhìdù lùn, and so forth. For this reason, there is the preface attesting to credibility, and so forth.

1.21

The text has six parts: First, 'Thus' brings forth the substance of the Dharma that was heard. Second, 'have I heard' clarifies Ānanda, who is able to uphold it. Third, 'at one time' clarifies the harmonious joining of hearing and upholding, the spiritual resonance between response and capacity. Fourth, 'the Buddha' clarifies the master who preaches the teaching. Fifth, from 'dwelling in Rājagṛha' downward clarifies the place where the teaching is preached. Sixth, from 'together with a great assembly of bhikṣus' downward clarifies the assembly that heard it together. In explaining these six phrases: The sūtras of the buddhas of the three times all set down 'Thus'; the Path of all buddhas is identical and does not contend with the world—this is the worldly siddhānta. The Dàzhìdù lùn says: 'Adducing the time and place to cause people to give rise to faith in the matter—this is the individual siddhānta. Refuting the two characters ā and oṃ of the non-Buddhists—this is the therapeutic siddhānta.' Sēngzhào says: ''Thus' is an expression of faith and compliance. When there is faith, one accords with the principle heard; when there is compliance, the path between master and disciple is fulfilled.' According with principle is the supreme-truth siddhānta. These four are all explanations in terms of causes and conditions, and so forth. In terms of the teachings: The Buddha explained that the conventional truth possesses written words while the ultimate truth is devoid of written words; that Ānanda transmitted the Buddha's conventional words without discrepancy is called 'as/thus' (ru); because of these conventional words one accords with the real without error, it is called 'is/right' (shi). This is the 'Thus' at the beginning of sūtras of the Tripiṭaka teaching. The Buddha explained that form is emptiness and emptiness is form, that form and emptiness, emptiness and form, are non-dual and not distinct; that emptiness and form are not different is 'as/thus'; that phenomena are immediately the ultimate is 'is/right'—this is the 'Thus' at the beginning of sūtras of the shared teaching. The Buddha preached that birth and death are existence and nirvāṇa is non-existence; entering the non-existence of nirvāṇa from the existence of birth and death, and emerging from the non-existence of nirvāṇa to enter into the Middle Way—that Ānanda transmitted this with no difference from the Buddha is the 'Thus' at the beginning of sūtras of the distinctive teaching. The Buddha preached that birth and death is immediately nirvāṇa and immediately the Middle Way, pervading all places without anything failing to be the Buddha-Dharma, which is called 'as such' dharmatā; that Ānanda transmitted this with no difference from the Buddha is 'as/thus'; being immovably as such is called 'is/right'—this is the 'Thus' at the beginning of sūtras of the perfect teaching. This sūtra is endowed with the meanings of 'Thus' according to the three teachings and the three truths; that Ānanda transmitted it without mistake or error is [what is meant]. The substance of the Dharma that was heard is finished.

1.22

Explaining 'have I heard': The Dàzhìdù lùn says: 'When the ear faculty is undamaged, the sound is in an audible place, and the mind is set on desiring to hear, through the combination of numerous conditions one says "I have heard".' 'I' is general and the 'ear' is specific; raising the general to encompass the specific is the explanation according to the worldly [siddhānta]. When Ānanda ascended the seat and uttered 'I have heard', the great assembly wept with sorrow and verses were uttered in the sky; this is for the individual. When Ānanda ascended the seat, the assembly doubted whether Śākyamuni had risen again, or whether Ānanda had become a buddha, or whether a buddha from another direction had come; when he proclaimed 'I have heard', the three doubts were dispelled; this is the therapeutic explanation. Ānanda conformed to worldly convention in saying 'I have heard'; in the supreme truth, self is immediately non-self, and hearing is immediately non-hearing; without hearing yet hearing, without self yet having a self—this is the supreme-truth explanation. In terms of the teachings, the Commentary says: 'Ordinary beings have three kinds [of self]: views, conceit, and nominal designation. Learners have two kinds; those beyond learning have one kind.' Ānanda was a learner; he had no heretical self and was able to subdue the conceited self, conforming to the worldly nominal designation to say 'I'—this is the meaning of the Tripiṭaka [teaching]. The Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā says: 'Saying "I" in four phrases all falls into heterodox views. Within the Buddha's true Dharma, where there is no self, who hears?' This is the meaning of the shared teaching. The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says: 'Ānanda is a man of great learning, who naturally can understand self and non-self.' Knowing self and non-self as two yet non-dual, doubly distinguishing self and non-self—this is the meaning of the distinctive teaching. If Ānanda knows self and non-self as non-dual yet dual, dual yet non-dual, acting expediently as an attendant to transmit the Buddha's wisdom—this is the explanation according to the perfect teaching. The Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna Sūtra mentions three Ānandas: first, Ānanda, translated here as 'Joy', who maintained the Small Vehicle treasury; second, Ānandabhadra, translated here as 'Joyful Worthy', who maintained the miscellaneous treasury; third, Ānandasāgara, translated here as 'Joyful Ocean', who maintained the Buddha treasury. The Āgamas have 'Treasury-Preserving Ānanda', who maintained the bodhisattva treasury. This clearly refers to one person who is endowed with the four virtues and transmits and maintains the four teachings; its meaning is clear. Regarding the contemplation of mind, there are the contemplation of emptiness, the contemplation of provisionality, and the correct contemplation of the Middle Way. Being immediately empty means the self is non-self. Being immediately provisional means non-self is the self. Being immediately middle means this is the true self.

1.23

Regarding 'heard': Ānanda was born on the night the Buddha attained the Path and attended the Buddha for more than twenty years; during the time he did not attend the Buddha, he would presumably not have heard. The Dàzhìdù lùn says: 'Ānanda heard through indirect transmission, not hearing everything directly.' In the Sūtra on Repaying Kindness, Ānanda requested four vows, wishing the Buddha to preach again the teachings he had not heard. The Garbhakośa Sūtra says: 'From the golden coffin, the Buddha extended his golden arm and manifested again for Ānanda the signs of entering and emerging from the womb; because of this, all sūtras could be said to be heard [by him].' The Lotus Sūtra says: 'When Ānanda received his prediction, he immediately recollected the Buddha-Dharma of the past, making it appear as if right before his eyes; therefore, everything is termed "heard".' This is the explanation in terms of causes and conditions. If it is the Joyful Ānanda, whose face was like the pure full moon and whose eyes were like blue lotus blossoms, who personally received the Buddha's instructions as if one elevated a flawless vessel to hold water and poured it into another pitcher without a single phrase left out—this is maintaining the Dharma of hearing what was heard. The Joyful Worthy, abiding on the stage of learning, attains emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness, with his six faculties free of outflow—this is maintaining the Dharma of hearing what was not heard. The Treasury-Preserving Ānanda contains and receives much, like a cloud holding rain—this is maintaining the Dharma of not hearing what was heard. Ānanda-Ocean is a man of great learning who naturally can understand the eternal and the impermanent, and so forth. If one knows that the Tathāgata constantly preaches no Dharma, this is called great learning. The water of the great ocean of the Buddha-Dharma flowed into Ānanda's mind—this is maintaining the Dharma of not hearing what was not heard. This sūtra possesses the three teachings; that is, Ānanda, as one single person, transmits and maintains them through the three virtues, and so forth.

1.24

Explaining 'at one time': Sēngzhào says: 'The day the Dharma King set forth his fortune, the time of the great assembly's auspicious gathering.' This is the worldly explanation of time. The Dàzhìdù lùn says: 'Kāla is actual time, the time shown to internal disciples, such as mealtime and robe-wearing time—this is time spoken for the individual. Samaya is conventional time, dispelling the heterodox views of non-Buddhists'—this is the therapeutic explanation of time. In the supreme truth, there is no time and no non-time. A broad clarification of the meaning of time is fully stated as in the first fascicle of the Dàzhìdù lùn, and so forth. In terms of the teachings, from seeing the truths upward to those beyond learning downward is called the lower 'at one time'; if the three persons together enter the supreme truth, it is called the middle 'at one time'; from ascending the grounds upward is called the upper 'at one time'; from the initial abode upward is called the highest 'at one time'. The initial preaching of this sūtra is the shared 'at one time'; in terms of the reception of those of the distinctive and perfect teachings, it is endowed with the three times, and so forth.

1.25

Explaining the Lord of the Teaching: this is the Buddha. "Buddha" is translated as "awakened"—he is awakened to the two diseases of body and mind, which are all afflictions; only when cause and effect are perfected can he shatter bondage. At the beginning of a kalpa there is no disease, while at the end of a kalpa there are many diseases; in times of genuine longevity there is joy, while in times of short longevity there is suffering. The eastern continent is wealthy and long-lived; the western continent has many cattle and sheep; the northern continent is devoid of self and others: such places cannot move the Buddha to appear. At eighty thousand years of age, beings in the southern continent cultivate causes without yet seeing the fruit, and down to [the age of] one hundred years it is also like this; therefore the Buddha appears in that land. This is the explanation according to the worldly [truth]. If the sun does not come out, the flowers in the pond—both unborn and already born—do not appear; when the sun comes out, they all bloom. If the Buddha does not appear in the world, devas and humans decrease and the evil realms increase. If the Buddha appears in the world, then there are kṣatriyas, brahmins, householders, [beings of] the Four Heavenly Kings up to the Summit of Existence. This is the explanation according to individual [adaptation]. Those with the capacity for the three vehicles can move the Buddha to appear in the world, whereas others cannot; if one severs the seeds of the Summit of Existence, one forever crosses over the stream of birth and death. This is the explanation according to therapeutic [counteraction]. The Buddha has no movement and no appearance with respect to dharmatā, yet he causes sentient beings to be moved to see his movement and appearance, while in truth there is neither movement nor appearance for the Tathāgata. This is stated according to the supreme truth. As for the Buddha being called "awakened": he awakens to the worldly suffering and accumulation, and awakens to the supramundane path and cessation; his body is sixteen feet tall and his lifespan is eighty years. Manifesting the form of a monk and attaining Buddhahood under the tree with thirty-four mental moments—this is the World-Honoured One of the Tripiṭaka [teaching] awakening himself and awakening others. Retaining the sixteen-foot form while manifesting the superior and unique body, and severing the remaining residual habit-energies in a single thought-moment of correspondence atop the tree—this is the Buddha of the shared [teaching] awakening himself and awakening others. Manifesting the superior and unique body, sitting on the lotus pedestal, and receiving the Buddha's prediction—this is the Buddha of the distinctive [teaching] awakening himself and awakening others. Concealing the previous three marks and solely displaying the inconceivable mark like empty space—this is the Buddha of the perfect teaching awakening himself and awakening others. Therefore the Xiangfa jueyi jing says: "Some see a sixteen-foot body, some see a small body or a large body, some see him sitting on a lotus pedestal expounding the mind-ground Dharma door for hundreds of thousands of Śākyamunis, and some see his body filling empty space and pervading the dharmadhātu without distinctions." These are the meanings of the four Buddhas. Explaining in terms of original and trace: three Buddhas are the trace, and one Buddha is the original, and so forth. Explaining in terms of contemplation of mind: contemplating phenomena produced by causes and conditions and analysing them to nothingness is the clumsy awakening of the Tripiṭaka [teaching]. Contemplating causes and conditions as identical to emptiness is the clever awakening of the shared teaching; both awaken to emptiness. If one first contemplates emptiness, next the provisional, and afterwards the middle, this is the provisional awakening of the distinctive teaching. If one contemplates all dharmas as identical to emptiness, identical to the provisional, and identical to the middle, this is the perfect awakening.

1.26

Explaining the dwelling place has three parts: first, explaining "dwelling"; next, explaining the royal city; afterwards, explaining the mountain. The Buddha is endowed with the three bodies and has eight dwelling places. The response body has four dwellings: first, dwelling of lifespan, which refers to the five-part Dharma body and so forth; second, dwelling of dependence, which refers to the royal city, Gṛdhrakūṭa Mountain, and so forth; third, dwelling of boundary, which refers to the realm of the trichiliocosm; fourth, dwelling of deportment, which refers to walking, standing, sitting, and lying down. The reward body has three dwellings: first, celestial dwelling, dwelling in the six desire heavens; second, brahma dwelling, dwelling in the four dhyāna heavens; third, noble dwelling, dwelling in emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness. The Dharma body has one dwelling: dwelling in the emptiness of the supreme truth, and so forth. In terms of the teachings: the Buddha of the Tripiṭaka [teaching] enters truth from the approach of analysis, knows the uncontaminated, and dwells in the two nirvāṇas of with remainder and without remainder; the Buddha of the shared [teaching] enters truth from the approach of identity with the essence and dwells in the two nirvāṇas; the Buddha of the distinctive [teaching] dwells in the secret treasury from the sequential approach; the Buddha of the perfect [teaching] dwells in the secret treasury from the non-sequential approach. Second, explaining the city. Preserving the Sanskrit phonetics fully, it should be called Luoyueqi Mohe Jialuo (Rājagṛha Mahānagara). Luoyueqi here is translated as "royal residence" (Rājagṛha); Mohe here is translated as "great" (mahā); Jialuo here is translated as "city" (nagara). The name of the country is Magadha, translated here as "not harming people", meaning it has no law of wanton killing. It is also called Mojieti, translated here as Tianluo (net of heaven); Tianluo was the father of Kalmāṣapāda (Spotted-feet). Long ago in ancient times, this ruler presided over a thousand small countries. At that time, while the king was hunting, he encountered a lioness and copulated with her. Later, when the months were complete, she came into the king's palace and gave birth to a child. The king carefully verified that it was his child, and made an edict, saying: "I had no son; heaven has granted me a son." He raised him to adulthood; because his feet were mottled, people of the time called him Spotted-feet. Later he succeeded to the royal throne and took great pleasure in eating meat. On one occasion meat was suddenly lacking, so they took a newly deceased infant from the west of the city to supply the king's meal. The king found it very delicious and ordered that this be the regular standard. Thenceforth the cooks killed one person each day; the poison spread throughout the world, and the entire country grew resentful. The kings of the thousand small countries raised an army to attack him, exiling him to the five mountains. Rākṣasas flanked and aided him so that he became a ghost king; thereupon he made a vow to the mountain spirit: "Only when I kill a thousand kings will my wish be fulfilled." Through his supernatural power he captured the kings; only King Samantaprabhāsa was captured later. As he was about to slaughter them to sacrifice to the mountain spirit, King Samantaprabhāsa wept with grief and regret, and spoke these words: "All my life I have spoken truth, yet today I breach my trust." Spotted-feet asked, "What trust do you seek?" Samantaprabhāsa answered, "I promised to conduct a great giving." Spotted-feet told him: "I release you to conduct the giving; when the matter is finished, come to me." Delighted, Samantaprabhāsa returned to his home country far away, held a great assembly of giving, entrusted the government to the crown prince, and with peaceful mind and joyful countenance crawled back to meet his death. Spotted-feet asked: "The gate of death is difficult to face. Since you succeeded in leaving, why did you return on your own?" King Samantaprabhāsa then expounded the mind of loving-kindness at length to Spotted-feet, reviled killing, and further showed that everything is impermanent. Spotted-feet heard and had faith; he attained equality of emptiness and dwelt on the first stage (prathamabhūmi). Gathering the thousand kings together, he took one drop of blood and three strands of hair from each to fulfil his vow to the mountain spirit; thereupon he built a city and erected houses together with the thousand kings in the five mountains, forming a flourishing great state where they took turns administering the government. Because a thousand kings dwelt there, it was called the Royal Residence (Rājagṛha). Furthermore, the common people in the city had their houses built seven times and burnt down seven times, while the king's residence alone escaped. The crown prince issued an order: "From this day forward, even the houses of the common people shall all be called 'royal residences' (rājagṛha), and thus they shall avoid the disaster of fire." The entire land complied with the order, and they were then spared from burning; thus the houses of the common people were all called royal residences, and so forth. It is also said to mean "royal pardon", because King Samantaprabhāsa pardoned the thousand kings, hence it was called the Royal Pardon. Moreover, this city was jointly constructed by the Four Heavenly Kings, hence it was called the Royal Residence. Furthermore, the king of Magadha gave birth to a son with one head, two faces, and four hands; deeming it inauspicious, he tore his body and head apart, wanting to cast them into the wilds. There was a female rākṣasa ghost named Līlā who joined his body back together and nurtured him with milk. When he grew to adulthood, his strength surpassed that of all countries; he took eighty-four thousand kings and placed them within the five mountains, establishing a city and governing. Because many kings dwelt there, it was called the Royal Residence, and so forth. Moreover, Magadha is called the "place that holds the nectar"; it has twelve cities: first, the great city of Ujjayinī; second, the great city of Puṇḍravardhana; third, the great city of Ahicchatra; fourth, the great city of Plakṣa; fifth, the great city of Rājagṛha; sixth, the great city of Śrāvastī; seventh, the great city of Vārāṇasī; eighth, the great city of Kapilavastu; ninth, the city of Campā; tenth, the city of Sāketa; eleventh, the city of Kauśāmbī; twelfth, the city of Kuru. Among these twelve cities, [the Buddha] dwelt little in the latter six and dwelt much in the former six. Furthermore, among the former six cities, he dwelt much in Rājagṛha to repay the debt of kindness to the Dharma body, and dwelt little in the city of Śrāvastī to repay the debt of kindness to the physical body. As for "residence" (vihāra), within Rājagṛha there are six vihāras: first, the Bamboo Grove Vihāra, on flat ground, constructed by the elder Kalandaka, thirty li northwest of the city; second, the Vihāra of Mount Mandara; third, the Vihāra of Saptaparṇaguha Mountain; fourth, the Vihāra of Indraguha Mountain; fifth, the Vihāra of Sarpaśoṇḍaguha Mountain; sixth, the Gṛdhrakūṭa Mountain Vihāra.

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