俱舍論疏 12

English (machine translation) 12

Language: English

12.2

Chapter 3: Exposition of the World, Part 5

On the Śāstra's words, "Having thus in terms of [...] up to the three absolute minima": From here below is the third major section, explaining the three limits: first, explaining the three absolute minima; second, explaining how accumulating the absolute minima forms large quantities. The following half-verse explains the three absolute minima. Among the three absolute minima, two are what is signified (the referents) and one is what signifies (the expression). Among what is signified, one is a quantity of form, and the second is a quantity of time.

12.4

On the words, "The Śāstra says: [...] is the absolute minimum of form": This describes the absolute minimum of form. In the Mahāyāna, there is no real [atom]; it is merely that discerning wisdom mentally analyzes it down to an atom (paramāṇu). This is a transformation of the conscious mind and is not formed by accumulating small parts. In the Hīnayāna, it is said that real atoms exist to form gross forms; analyzing gross form until it can no longer be analyzed is called a single atom.

12.5

On the Śāstra's words, "Analyzing in this way [...] as when uttering the name 'go' (ox)": This describes the minimum quantities of name and time. Analyzing from a thirty-two-syllable name down to a single-syllable name is called the absolute minimum of name. By extension, analyzing multiple names down to a single name is taken as the absolute minimum. Thus, when combining two syllables and above, whether there is no separate entity or there is a separate entity, the meaning is not contradictory either way. Just as with the specks of dust of an atom, gold, water, a hare, a sheep, an ox, and so forth, apart from their substantive atoms there is no separate entity.

12.6

On the Śāstra's words, "What is called the quantity of a single kṣaṇa?": Resolving an objection and re-explaining. First an inquiry, later an answer. This is the inquiry.

12.7

On the Śāstra's words, "The assembly of multiple conditions [...] traversing a single atom": Within the answer there are two parts: first, stating the Sautrāntika answer; second, stating the Vaibhāṣika answer. This is the first. In the Sautrāntika answer there are two aspects: First, a dharma previously lacking intrinsic nature is the future; having obtained its nature and then perished, it is the past; having obtained its nature and not yet perished is called the present. Precisely this moment of having obtained its nature and not yet perished is called a single kṣaṇa. Second, or when an active dharma traverses a single atom, it is called a single kṣaṇa. The spatial quantity of an atom is minimal, and the temporal quantity of a kṣaṇa is minimal. If traversing two or more atoms were called a single kṣaṇa, the kṣaṇa would have a before and after, and would not be the absolute minimum of time; if traversing a single atom took two kṣaṇas, the atom's quantity would have parts, and the atom would not be the absolute minimum. For this reason, it is said that traversing a single atom is called a single kṣaṇa. Question: If the moment when dharmas obtain their intrinsic nature is called a single kṣaṇa, and the moment of obtaining their intrinsic nature is precisely a single thought-moment (citta-kṣaṇa), why does the Renwang Banruo say, "In a single thought-moment there are ninety kṣaṇas, and in a single kṣaṇa there are nine hundred arisings and ceasings"? Answer: Arising and ceasing are subtle; only a Buddha can know them. The minds of Hīnayāna practitioners are coarse and perceive arising and ceasing as coarse; the minds of the Buddhas are subtle and perceive arising and ceasing as subtle. Hence they differ. Now, examining the Sautrāntika explanation: if an active dharma traverses a single atom, it is not known whether this motion takes the absolute fastest or takes a slightly slower speed? If it takes a slightly slower speed, relative to the fast there would still be a before and after to serve as the absolute minimum. If it takes the absolute fastest, consider the four continents: their diameter is 1,200,300,450 yojanas; the circuit of the solar disc around the four continents is roughly 3,000,000 yojanas; one yojana is roughly eighteen li minus eighty bu; 3,000,000 yojanas is roughly over 50,000,000 li. Counting bu per li, it already exceeds [the number of kṣaṇas in] a day and night, yet in a day and night there are only 6,480,000 kṣaṇas. The number of bu already exceeds this, not to mention feet (chi), inches (cun), and other faster objects. It is not clear what the master of the treatise intended by this.

12.8

On the Śāstra's words, "The Abhidharma masters [...] the quantity of a single kṣaṇa": This states the Vaibhāṣika position. In the Vibhāṣā there are many more metaphors and comparisons; fearing prolixity, they are not recounted. Although it differs slightly from the Sautrāntika, it also fails to fully explain the quantity of a kṣaṇa. One master says: The real quantity of a kṣaṇa was not spoken by the World-Honoured One. The Nyāyānusāra says, "A kṣaṇa is difficult to know; it is manifested through provisional metaphors, but they do not exhaust the principle." Although there is this explanation, it still does not tally with the number of kṣaṇas in a day, nor can it demonstrate that the absolute minimum of a kṣaṇa has no parts of before and after. For instance, in the time of a finger snap there are sixty-five kṣaṇas; in that span of time it does not merely traverse sixty-five atoms. If it traverses many atoms, then it is not without before and after. If traversing a single atom is called a single kṣaṇa, then it would not be merely sixty-five. Now two brief explanations are given: First, the kṣaṇas of a day and night differ from these kṣaṇas. The kṣaṇas of a day and night are purely a method of calculation, like the name for the smallest measure of balances, measuring rules, and so on; when there is no Buddhadharma, this number is always fixed. This kṣaṇa of arising and ceasing, however, is the measure of the arising and ceasing of dharmas. The Sautrāntika say it is the moment dharmas obtain their intrinsic nature, while the Vaibhāṣika say it is the moment of seizing an effect. Second, explaining that the absolute minimum of time is called a single kṣaṇa: it is a term for the counting of time, meaning that the absolute minimum is called a single kṣaṇa, and the absolute maximum is called an eon (kalpa), and so forth. It is not that a kṣaṇa lacks even subtler divisions, nor that an eon lacks further times. One should deliberate further on this.

12.9

On the Śāstra's words, "Having known the three absolute minima [...] up to a yojana, etc.": From here below is the second major section, explaining the accumulation of form.

12.10

On the words, "The Śāstra says: [...] forms a finger joint": The eleven ranks above are each formed by sets of seven. The hair of a hare is fine and smooth, so its dust is smaller than that of sheep hair; the hair of an ox is glossy and oily, so its dust is larger than that of sheep hair. To say "formed by sets of seven" means the six directions plus the centre make seven.

12.11

On the Śāstra's words, "Three joints form a finger [...] they are not differentiated": This explains the verse's intention in not mentioning that three joints form a finger. The three finger joints forming a finger refers to three vertical joints, like the fingers of people today.

12.12

On the Śāstra's words, "Twenty-four fingers [...] the measure of intermediate paths": Explaining the latter four measures. In ancient times, one bow was eight chi, which is the ancient xun. Nowadays there are those of six chi and below, which is the six-chi bu method. Nowadays the five-chi bu method is mostly used. "Krośa" is a place not reached by the sound of humans or oxen, a place free of noisy clamour; in Sanskrit it is called araṇya. "A" means non-, and "raṇya" means noisy clamour. If calculated using eight chi as a xun, the measure of five hundred bows is four thousand chi. If calculated using six chi, it is three thousand chi. If one calculates a bow by one cubit (hasta) being one chi and six cun, then it is six chi and four cun. Because the treatise was composed in ancient times, one should calculate it by eight chi.

12.13

On the Śāstra's words, "Eight krośas are said to make one yojana": This is four times eight is thirty-two: 32,000 chi. If calculated with the five-chi bu method, it is 6,400 bu. If calculated with the 360-bu li method, it is eighteen li minus eighty bu.

12.14

On the Śāstra's words, "Having thus explained the yojana and so forth": The second part explains the measures of time. Within this there are two parts: first, from a kṣaṇa up to the measure of a year; second, explaining the measure of an eon. The two lines of verse below first explain from a kṣaṇa up to the measure of a year.

12.15

On the words, "The Śāstra says: One hundred and twenty kṣaṇas make one tatkṣaṇa": The first division. This has 120 kṣaṇas.

12.16

On the Śāstra's words, "Sixty tatkṣaṇas make one lava": The second division. This has 7,200 kṣaṇas.

12.17

On the Śāstra's words, "Thirty lavas make one muhūrta": The third division. 216,000 kṣaṇas.

12.18

On the Śāstra's words, "Thirty muhūrtas make one day and night": The fourth division. 6,480,000 kṣaṇas.

12.19

On the Śāstra's words, "These days and nights [...] know that the nights decrease": "Sometimes increasing": day and night total thirty muhūrtas, which here are called moments (xuyu). When the night increases it has eighteen, and the day has twelve, which is the winter solstice in this land. When the day increases, it is the summer solstice in this land. "Sometimes equal" corresponds to the spring and autumn equinoxes. "Six months have decreasing nights": this refers to the night including the day. Among the twelve months, six months have decreasing nights, which is the six short months in this land. Citing the verse as proof: "Among the cold, hot, and rainy seasons" reiterates the three seasons. "When a month and a half have passed" means that in the rainy months one day is subtracted; when reaching a month and a half having passed, it is the end of the second half of the second month lacking one day, which is one day subtracted in the rainy months in this land. "In the remaining half-month" is the latter half of the second month; in this land there are also consecutive short months, consecutive long months, intercalary months, and so forth, which are omitted without discussion.

12.20

On the Śāstra's words, "Having thus distinguished [...] now should be distinguished": From here below, the second section has four lines of verse explaining the measures of eons. Within this there are three parts: first, explaining large and small; second, explaining humans; third, explaining catastrophes. The lines below first explain the large and small eons. The verse text can be understood.

12.21

On the words, "The Śāstra says: [...] until the outer receptacle is entirely destroyed": Explaining the eon of destruction (saṃvartakalpa). In the verse, first the four eons are explained: the eon of destruction, the eon of formation, the intermediate eon, and the great eon. Here the eon of destruction is first explained. The eon of destruction refers to the period from when hell beings are no longer reborn until the outer receptacle is entirely destroyed; all of this is the eon of destruction.

12.22

On the Śāstra's words, "Destruction is of two kinds [...] second, the destruction of the outer receptacle": There are two sets of twofold divisions: first, dividing the destruction of sentient beings into two; second, dividing sentient beings and the receptacle into two; making four headings in total.

12.23

On the Śāstra's words, "Namely, this world [...] the eon of destruction then arrives": Explaining that after the eon of abiding (sthiti-kalpa) there is the eon of destruction. In the eon of abiding, "twenty intermediate eons" refers to the twenty intermediate eons of swords and weapons, etc. Regarding the eon of destruction, it is called "equally abiding" because in the eon of destruction there are no eons of swords and weapons, etc.; it is only that the time is equal to the eon of abiding, so it is named the eon of equal abiding. Thus abiding, destruction, emptiness, and formation each have twenty eons, combining eighty intermediate eons to make one great eon.

12.24

On the Śāstra's words, "When the hells [...] the hells have already been destroyed": From here below, the destruction of the destinies is explained. Within the destruction of the destinies, first explaining the hells; second, explaining animals and ghosts; third, explaining the human destiny; fourth, explaining the heavenly destiny. This explains the hells. When those who ought to be reborn are not reborn, it is called the eon of destruction. When sentient beings are completely exhausted, it is called already destroyed.

12.25

On the Śāstra's words, "All those hells [...] in the hells of other directions": In this world, those whose karma is indeterminate experience it at a time after the catastrophe, or do not experience it at all; all those whose karma is determinate experience it in other directions. Now, considering the time when hell is destroyed, it does not exceed an intermediate eon.

12.26

On the Śāstra's words, "From this one can infer [...] are destroyed together with humans and gods": This explains the second, the destruction of animals and ghosts. The original dwelling place of ghosts is five hundred yojanas beneath this continent. Animals reside in the great ocean. Saying "each first destroys its original dwelling place" means first destroying animals, and later destroying the ghost destiny.

12.27

On the Śāstra's words, "When the human destiny [...] the human destiny has already been destroyed": This third part explains the destruction of the human destiny. At the time of the eon of destruction, humans of the three continents, by the force of nature and so on, are born in the world of Brahmā. Humans of Uttarakuru, having first been born in the desire heavens, are later born in the world of Brahmā, because they are definitely born in the desire heavens and cannot be detached from defilement [directly].

12.28

On the Śāstra's words, "When the heavenly destinies [...] are explained by analogy with this": The fourth part explains the destruction of the heavenly destinies. In their respective heavens, they all manage to detach from defilement and are born directly in the world of Brahmā, without transmigrating elsewhere.

12.29

On the Śāstra's words, "Up to the Kāmadhātu [...] sentient beings have already been destroyed": From here below, the second part explains the destruction of the realms.

12.30

On the Śāstra's words, "When the world of Brahmā [...] the sentient-being world": The third part is the destruction of the sentient-being world.

12.31

On the Śāstra's words, "Only the receptacle world [...] leaving no ashes or embers behind": The fourth part explains the destruction of the world.

12.32

On the Śāstra's words, "The flames of one's own stage [...] should be known accordingly": Explaining that the catastrophe of one's own stage only destroys one's own stage and does not destroy other stages.

12.33

On the Śāstra's words, "In this way, from the beginning [...] is collectively named the eon of destruction": Concluding summary of the eon of destruction.

12.34

On the Śāstra's text, "As for what is called the kalpa of formation... the kalpa of formation then arrives": This is the second major section, explaining the kalpa of formation. Only after the kalpa of emptiness does the kalpa of formation occur; both the kalpa of emptiness and the kalpa of formation are equal to the twenty kalpas of the kalpa of abiding. The explanation of the kalpa of formation is further divided into four parts: first, explaining the order of formation; second, explaining the signs of approaching formation; third, explaining the formation of the external receptacle world; fourth, explaining the formation of sentient beings. The passage below is the first, explaining the order.

12.35

On the Śāstra's text, "[Owing to the collective karma of] all sentient beings... signs preceding formation": The passage below is the second, explaining the signs of formation.

12.36

On the Śāstra's text, "The winds gradually increase in strength... the external receptacle world": The passage below is the third, explaining the formation of the receptacle world.

12.37

On the Śāstra's text, "From the first single sentient being... one should know that it is already complete": This is the fourth, explaining the formation of sentient beings.

12.38

On the Śāstra's text, "After this there are further... only then does life span gradually decrease": This is the third major section, explaining the kalpa of abiding. Within it there are five parts: first, explaining the order of formation; second, explaining that the beginning is solely decreasing; third, explaining the middle decrease and increase; fourth, explaining that the end is solely increasing; fifth, a general summary of the preceding. This is the first. From the formation of the world of sentient beings across nineteen intermediate kalpas, when human lifespan was immeasurable years, gradually down to a single sentient being [born in] the Avīci hell, it is named the completion of the kalpa of formation. From this point onward, human lifespan gradually decreases.

12.39

On the Śāstra's text, "The subsequent eighteen... are by analogy all like this": This is the third, explaining that the intervening eighteen have both increase and decrease.

12.40

On the Śāstra's text, "After the eighteenth... it is named the twentieth kalpa": This is the fourth, explaining that the final one kalpa only increases. Although this final one kalpa is like the eighteen in increasing up to eighty thousand [years], because the increase is gradual, it is like the decreases and increases before.

12.41

On the Śāstra's text, "All kalpic increases... having formed, [it is] the kalpa of abiding": This is the fifth, generally summarizing the preceding.

12.42

On the Śāstra's text, "The remaining [kalpas of] formation and destruction... twenty intermediate kalpas": This explains that, following the temporal measure of the twenty of abiding, the measures of the kalpas of formation, destruction, and emptiness are identical. The single kalpa of emptiness has no further distinctive characteristics, and therefore is not separately explained.

12.43

On the Śāstra's text, "The first kalpa in formation... sentient beings gradually abandon [it]": This explains the difference in the temporal measures of the receptacle and sentient beings during the kalpas of formation and destruction. The Lokasthāna-sūtra states that the receptacle and sentient beings each take ten kalpas to form and destroy, which differs from this; that text states: "After King Brahmā is born first and abides for ten kalpas, the Brahmapurohitas and so forth are born in succession." Hence we know that from the Brahmapurohitas down takes ten kalpas to form. If combined with King Brahmā, it takes nineteen kalpas to form; King Brahmā is included within the formation of the receptacle, hence it is ten kalpas. Thus we know that after the kalpic destruction, King Brahmā abides alone for ten kalpas.

12.44

On the Śāstra's text, "As thus explained... forms the measure of a mahākalpa": Totaling eighty, they form one mahākalpa.

12.45

On the Śāstra's text, "What is the nature of a kalpa?": Asking about the essential nature of a kalpa.

12.46

On the Śāstra's text, "It is said to be merely the five skandhas": Answering regarding the essential nature of a kalpa. It clarifies that there is no separate dharma; the five skandhas of that time are taken as its essential nature. This differs from non-Buddhists who hold that there is a separate time and direction. The Vibhāṣā, fascicle 145, says: "What is the essential nature of a kalpa? Some say it is matter (rūpa). The correct statement is that the states of day and night and so forth are without exception the arising and ceasing of the five skandhas, by which a kalpa is formed; the essential nature of a kalpa is also like this. Since a kalpa applies to the time periods of the three realms, it takes the four skandhas or the five skandhas as its nature. If in the formless realm, it takes the four skandhas as its nature; in the kalpa of emptiness, it takes two skandhas as its nature." The Vibhāṣā-śāstra says: "Why is it named a kalpa? What is the meaning of kalpa? Answer: Because of distinguishing (kalpana) temporal divisions, it is divided as a kalpa. That is to say, distinguishing the temporal divisions of kṣaṇa, lava, and muhūrta to form day and night; distinguishing the temporal divisions of day and night to form fortnights, months, and years; distinguishing the temporal divisions of fortnights and so forth to form a kalpa. Because it is the culmination among distinguishing temporal divisions, it acquires this general designation. The grammarians say: Because of distinguishing states, it is said to be named a kalpa. Why is that? Because it is the ultimate state among the conditioning of conditioned dharmas."

12.47

On the Śāstra's text, "The sūtra speaks of three kalpas... three asamkhyeya kalpas": A question.

12.48

On the Śāstra's text, "Accumulating the preceding mahākalpas... three asamkhyeya kalpas": The answer.

12.49

On the Śāstra's text, "Since it is called asamkhyeya (incalculable), why speak again of three?": An objection.

12.50

On the Śāstra's text, "The word 'asamkhyeya' does not... is one number among them": The answer. "Asaṃkhyeya" is translated here as "incalculable" (wushux). The word "asamkhyeya" does not mean that it cannot be counted; it is the name of one number among the sixty numbers in the Vimokṣa-sūtra.

12.51

On the Śāstra's text, "What are the sixty?": A question.

12.52

On the Śāstra's text, "As that sūtra states... three asamkhyeya kalpas": A summarizing answer.

12.53

On the Śāstra's text, "For what reason does a bodhisattva... only then expect the fruit of Buddhahood?": A question. Why does a bodhisattva not quickly attain the nirvāṇa of the two vehicles, but instead vows for a long duration to attain bodhi?

12.54

On the Śāstra's text, "How could one not accept that... makes vows of long duration": The answer. Because unexcelled bodhi is extremely difficult to attain, if one cannot make vows of long duration and cultivate many austerities and so forth, one will not attain bodhi; therefore, one definitely must make vows of long duration.

12.55

On the Śāstra's text, "If through other expedients... cultivate many austerities for so long": This is a repeated question. If it is because the fruit of unexcelled great bodhi is extremely difficult to attain that one makes vows of long duration and cultivates many austerities, yet since there are expedients taking sixty kalpas or three lifetimes that also attain nirvāṇa and escape from suffering, why cultivate many austerities for so long for the sake of bodhi?

12.56

On the Śāstra's text, "Wishing to benefit and bring happiness... seeks unexcelled bodhi": The answer. For the sake of benefiting sentient beings, one abandons the path to nirvāṇa to attain bodhi.

12.57

On the Śāstra's text, "What benefit is it to oneself to rescue other sentient beings?": A question. What benefit is it to oneself to rescue others, enduring austerities such as these?

12.58

On the Śāstra's text, "A bodhisattva's rescuing of beings... is itself one's own benefit": The answer. The bodhisattva's compassionate mind cherishes benefiting beings; once achieving Buddhahood and rescuing sentient beings, fulfilling one's compassionate mind is itself one's own benefit.

12.59

On the Śāstra's text, "Who would believe that a bodhisattva has such a matter?": An objection. This matter is difficult to believe; who can believe this?

12.60

On the Śāstra's text, "Those who harbor self-enrichment... this matter is not hard to believe": The answer: You harbor self-enrichment and lack great compassion; in this matter, it is truly hard for you to believe, because measuring others by yourself, you cannot believe it. If one lacks self-enrichment and has great compassion, this matter is not hard to believe, because one measures oneself by others.

12.61

On the Śāstra's text, "Just as when someone has long practiced... how could one not believe it?": Citing an analogy to illustrate, understandable according to the text.

12.62

On the Śāstra's text, "Furthermore, just as sentient beings... how could one not believe it?": Again citing an analogy. The above two analogies are due to frequent practice.

12.63

On the Śāstra's text, "Furthermore, due to spiritual lineage (gotra)... there is no separate self-benefit": Explaining that being of such a gotra gives rise to compassionate vows.

12.64

On the Śāstra's text, "Relying on such an meaning... takes others as oneself": Citing a verse as proof. Within this verse, the first two lines, "inferior persons," refers to ordinary persons (pṛthagjana); the next two lines, "middling persons," refers to the two vehicles; the final four lines, "superior persons," refers to bodhisattvas.

12.65

On the Śāstra's text, "Having thus distinguished... as the periods of the kalpa of formation": From this point below is the second major section, explaining persons: first, explaining pratyekabuddhas; second, explaining the four cakravartins; third, explaining the rise of minor kings. This single verse is the first, explaining Buddhas and pratyekabuddhas.

12.66

On "The Śāstra says... Buddhas appear": Explaining the time of a Buddha's appearance: during the gradual decrease from eighty thousand years, with no fixed time. That is, from eighty thousand years downward, decreasing by half a year and so forth, an appearance in the world is always possible, down to one hundred years; below one hundred years, there is no possibility of a Buddha's appearance. According to the Bhadrakalpika-sūtra, fascicle 10, it says: "Krakucchanda Buddha appeared in the world when human lifespan was forty thousand years; Kanakamuni Buddha appeared in the world when human lifespan was thirty thousand years; Kāśyapa Buddha appeared in the world when human lifespan was twenty thousand years; Śākyamuni Buddha appeared in the world when human lifespan was one hundred years." According to the Xiyu ji, fascicle 6, it says: "At sixty thousand, forty thousand, twenty thousand, and one hundred years, Buddhas appear in the world." Furthermore, according to the Lokasthāna-sūtra, fascicle 9, it says: "In the twenty small kalpas of the world's arising and formation, of those that have abided, how many have passed and how many have not passed? Eight small kalpas have passed, eleven small kalpas are in the future, and the ninth kalpa is currently not yet finished." According to this scriptural passage, right now precisely corresponds to the ninth kalpa; that is, the four Buddhas of the Bhadrakalpa who have appeared in the world are all within the gradually decreasing period of this ninth kalpa. This should be further examined in detail. According to this text, then within the preceding eight kalpas no Buddha appeared in the world, and Maitreya Buddha will appear precisely in the tenth kalpa. Furthermore, according to the Maitreya-sūtra [fascicle] 8, the "kalpa" mentioned is the kalpa of weapons; the sūtra says: "Within the kalpa of weapons, down to being born here today." Furthermore, according to this text, afterwards there are only eleven kalpas remaining, yet nine hundred and ninety-six more Buddhas are to appear; the time is feared to be far too pressed. Examining the Bhadrakalpa, it seems to be a wind kalpa, and among the sixty-four kalpas, this is the first kalpa. Taking sixty-four kalpas as one Bhadrakalpa, within which a thousand Buddhas [appear], would for the moment be plausible in principle. This should be further examined in detail.

12.67

On the Śāstra's text, "For what reason do no Buddhas appear during the period of increase?": A question. The period of increase goes from below to above; during the time of increase none appear at all.

12.68

On the Śāstra's text, "Sentient beings' pleasures increase and it is difficult to teach them disillusionment": The answer. The original intent of a Buddha's appearance is to cause disillusionment with saṃsāra; when pleasures gradually decrease, a mind of disillusionment easily arises; when pleasures gradually increase, it is difficult to teach disillusionment.

12.69

On the Śāstra's text, "For what reason do no Buddhas appear when [lifespan] decreases below one hundred?": A question. When the decreasing period is below one hundred years, their suffering increases even more; for what reason are they not taught to be disillusioned?

12.70

On the Śāstra's text, "The five turbidities (kaṣāya) are extremely intensified and they are difficult to convert": The answer. When it decreases below one hundred years, afflictions and so forth increase, while wisdom and mindfulness decrease, making them extremely difficult to convert.

12.71

On the Śāstra's text, "The five turbidities are... fifth, the turbidity of sentient beings": Taking the opportunity to explain the five turbidities, first listing the headings, and afterwards taking up each heading to explain it.

12.72

On the Śāstra's text, "When the kalpic decrease approaches its end... they are said to be turbidities": Generally explaining the designation "turbidity," which is to say, revealing badness. Settling at the bottom as dregs and defilement, they are therefore called turbidities, like turbid water and so forth.

12.73

On the Śāstra's text, "Due to the first two turbidities... are extremely degraded": Explaining that the first two turbidities cause rapid faults. Due to the turbidity of lifespan, longevity is degraded; due to the turbidity of the kalpa, material requisites are degraded, meaning that at the end of the kalpa material requisites are degraded.

12.74

On the Śāstra's text, "Due to the next two turbidities... the good of the home-renouncer": Explaining the faults caused by the next two turbidities. Due to the turbidity of afflictions, indulgence in sensual pleasures impairs the wholesome qualities of the householder; due to the turbidity of views, falsely undertaking austerities impairs the wholesome qualities of the home-renouncer.

12.75

On the Śāstra's text, "Due to the last one turbidity... and freedom from disease": Explaining that because of the turbidity of sentient beings, wisdom, mindfulness, and so forth are all degraded. The Vibhāṣā, fascicle 113, says: "The degradation of sentient beings means that at the beginning of the kalpa, this continent of Jambudvīpa was vast, pure, and adorned, with many gentle, wholesome, and meritorious sentient beings, cities and towns contiguous, and people filling them. When it reaches the end of the kalpa, only ten thousand people remain." According to the Vibhāṣā, the degradation of sentient beings has two aspects: first, making them degraded and bad; second, making them few in number. Badness is the meaning of turbidity; fewness in number is not the meaning of turbidity. Just as with turbid water or turbid wine, they are not named turbid because of being little, but rather named turbid because of the sediment and defilement settling at the bottom. Since this treatise explains the turbidity of sentient beings, it omits discussing fewness.

12.76

On the Śāstra's text, "The appearance of pratyekabuddhas occurs in both kalpic increase and decrease": The second part, explaining the time of appearance of pratyekabuddhas.

12.77

On the Śāstra's text, "However, among all pratyekabuddhas... is subsequently named a pratyekajina": From here below explains the two kinds of pratyekabuddha. The rhinoceros-horn-like (khaḍgaviṣāṇakalpa) refers to appearing in a world without a Buddha and arising entirely solitary. The group-living (vargacārin) pratyekabuddha was previously a śrāvaka at the fruit of stream-entry (srotāpanna); later, in a time without a Buddha, they advance to attain the superior fruit, and are therefore named a pratyekabuddha. This is one explanation.

12.78

On the Śāstra's text, "Others say that they... obtain the name pratyekajina": The second explanation. Having previously cultivated the śrāvaka's aids to penetration (nirvedhabhāgīya), later in a time without a Buddha they enter the path of vision (darśanamārga), being named a pratyekabuddha.

12.79

On the Śāstra's text, "From the avadāna (or itivṛttaka)... should not cultivate austerities": Citing this text to prove that they are ordinary persons. A noble person (ārya) has eliminated attachment to rules and rituals (śīlavrataparāmarśa) and should not cultivate austerities. Since they cultivated austerities, it proves they were ordinary persons (pṛthagjana).

12.80

On the Śāstra's text, "As for the rhinoceros-horn-like... rhinoceros-horn-like pratyekabuddhas": This is the second, explaining that the rhinoceros-horn-like pratyekabuddha differs from the group-living one.

12.81

On the Śāstra's words, "Those called 'Solitary Enlightened' ... because they do not train others": This explains the name 'Solitary Enlightened' (pratyekabuddha) as having two meanings: first, upon attaining the fruit, they do not rely on the supreme teaching; second, having already attained the fruit, they do not awaken others. Possessing these two meanings, they are called 'Solitary Enlightened'; it is not that in the causal state they did not rely on teachings.

12.82

On the Śāstra's words, "For what reason is it said that a Solitary Enlightened one does not train others?": A question. Below there are four objections.

12.83

On the Śāstra's words, "It is not that they lack the capability ... unobstructed comprehension (pratisaṃvid)": This is the first objection.

12.84

On the Śāstra's words, "There is the ability to remember ... the principles of the sacred teaching": This is the second objection.

12.85

On the Śāstra's words, "It cannot be said that they lack ... the supernormal power (ṛddhi) over principles": This is the third objection.

12.86

On the Śāstra's words, "Nor can it be said ... the path of antidotes": This is the fourth objection.

12.87

On the Śāstra's words, "Although this principle exists ... because they have no desire to speak": Below, there are answers based on three kinds of reasons. This is the first reason.

12.88

On the Śāstra's words, "Knowing that sentient beings ... difficult to make them go against the stream": This is the second reason.

12.89

On the Śāstra's words, "Also, avoiding gathering assemblies because they dread noisy turmoil": This is the third reason.

12.90

On the Śāstra's words, "When a wheel-turning monarch appears in the world ... what majesty and what marks?": The two lines of verse below form the second section, explaining the wheel-turning monarch (cakravartin). Within this there are five topics: first, asking what time; second, asking how many kinds; third, asking how many coexist; fourth, asking what majesty; fifth, asking what marks.

12.91

On "The Śāstra says ... therefore there is no wheel-turning monarch": This answers the time of appearance.

12.92

On the Śāstra's words, "This king, on account of the wheel ... is named a wheel-turning king": This explains how the wheel-turning king gets his name.

12.93

On the Śāstra's words, "In the Prajñaptipāda ... rules the boundaries of the four continents": This cites the Prajñaptipāda to answer how many kinds there are.

12.94

On the Śāstra's words, "The sūtra speaks in terms of the superior ... one should know that the others are also like this": This resolves the objection that the sūtras mention only the golden-wheel king, whereas in principle the other wheel-turning monarchs are also like this.

12.95

On the Śāstra's words, "A wheel-turning king, like a Buddha ... so too for a wheel-turning king": This answers the question above about how many coexist.

12.96

On the Śāstra's words, "One should carefully deliberate ... or regarding all realms?": A question. Taking occasion of this, it then clarifies whether there are Buddhas of the ten directions. This is that question.

12.97

On the Śāstra's words, "Some say that in other realms ... the others should also be like this": This sets forth the assertion of the Sarvāstivādins and others. A single Buddha can universally teach throughout all ten directions, so there is only one Buddha and not two, three, or more. If in a single place sentient beings are difficult to transform and a Buddha cannot transform them, other Buddhas would also be unable to transform them therein; hence there are no multiple Buddhas.

12.98

On the Śāstra's words, "Furthermore, the World-Honoured One addressed ... only a single Tathāgata": This cites the sacred teaching as proof again.

12.99

On the Śāstra's words, "If so, for what reason ... attains sovereign turning?": The Mahāsāṃghikas and others cite a sūtra to raise an objection: If you claim that one Buddha universally attains sovereignty in all world systems of the ten directions, why does the sūtra state, "I now attain sovereign turning in this trichiliocosm," and not say that he turns [the wheel] in other world systems?

12.100

On the Śāstra's words, "That has an implicit intention": The answer of the Sarvāstivādins and others.

12.101

On the Śāstra's words, "What is the implicit intention?": The question of the Mahāsāṃghikas and others.

12.102

On the Śāstra's words, "Namely, if the World-Honoured One ... by analogy to this, one should understand": The answer of the Sarvāstivādins and others.

12.103

On the Śāstra's words, "Masters of other schools say ... appears in the world": The tenet of masters of the other schools such as the Mahāsāṃghikas.

12.104

On the Śāstra's words, "Why is that?": Questioning the reason.

12.105

On the Śāstra's words, "There are many bodhisattvas ... there are boundless Buddhas appearing": The Mahāsāṃghikas and others explain the reason: Since there are many bodhisattvas cultivating the bodhisattva path, in principle many persons should be permitted to attain Buddhahood. That there is one Buddha in one realm may be accepted in principle, but what principle could prevent multiple Buddhas in multiple realms?

12.106

On the Śāstra's words, "If there were only a single Buddha ... this would be accomplished at once": An explanation by counter-objection.

12.107

On the Śāstra's words, "Therefore, when asked, there must certainly be many Buddhas": Summarising and establishing the conclusion.

12.108

On the Śāstra's words, "However, as for what they cited ... one realm or multiple realms?": Raising a counter-question to reconcile the sūtras.

12.109

On the Śāstra's words, "If it refers to multiple realms ... Buddhas in other realms?": Drawing an analogy with the wheel-turning king. Though it is said there is only one wheel-turning king, there are wheel-turning kings in other realms. Although the Tathāgata is said to be one, how could that preclude their existing in other realms?

12.110

On the Śāstra's words, "The appearance of a Buddha in the world ... and the path to definitive excellence": This reiterates the objection. The appearance of multiple Buddhas brings multiple auspicious things and extensive benefit; why not allow multiple Tathāgatas to appear simultaneously in the world?

12.111

On the Śāstra's words, "If so, why ... appear simultaneously?": An objection: If the appearance of multiple Buddhas brings extensive benefit, so that multiple Buddhas appear in multiple realms, then since a Buddha's appearance brings multiple auspicious things, why not allow multiple Buddhas in a single realm?

12.112

On the Śāstra's words, "Because it would be useless ... to benefit all": The answer. In the answer there are four points; this is the first.

12.113

On the Śāstra's words, "Also, by the power of vows ... to be the eye, to be the path, and so forth": The second reason.

12.114

On the Śāstra's words, "Also, to cause deep reverence ... they then give rise to deep reverence": The third reason.

12.115

On the Śāstra's words, "Also, to cause them to practice swiftly ... no two Buddhas appear": The fourth reason, and the general conclusion.

12.116

On the Śāstra's words, "As has been stated ... once victory is gained they cease": Explaining the differences in majesty among the four wheel-turning kings. This refers to the first, the golden-wheel king. Within this there are two aspects: first, difference; second, similarity. This distinguishes the differences in their majesty.

12.117

On the Śāstra's words, "All wheel-turning kings ... are certain to be reborn in heaven": The second aspect, similarity. Although the display of majesty differs, because they similarly do no harm and transform sentient beings through the ten virtuous courses of action, they are certain to be reborn in heaven.

12.118

On the Śāstra's words, "The sūtra says that the wheel-turning king ... the general treasure": This answers the fifth question on what marks they have. There are two kinds of marks: first, marks based on treasures, which are the seven treasures as marks; second, internal physical marks. These are the marks of the seven treasures. Within this there are two parts: first, listing the names; second, questions and answers. This is the first.

12.119

On the Śāstra's words, "The five treasures such as the elephant ... generated by other sentient beings": In the subsequent questions and answers, this is the question. Among the seven treasures, the jewel treasure and the wheel treasure are not included under sentient beings and can be brought about by the wheel-turning king's own karma. Since the five treasures such as the elephant are sentient beings, each produced by their own karma, how can a wheel-turning king induce the seven treasures?

12.120

On the Śāstra's words, "It is not that other sentient beings ... arises by embarking on their own karma": The answer. Although the five treasures are classed as sentient beings and are born from their own respective karma, nevertheless, on account of karma that ties them to the wheel-turning sacred king, when the wheel-turning king appears, these treasures are then born. However, since the wheel treasures of the other wheel-turning kings are inferior, the other treasures are also inferior.

12.121

On the Śāstra's words, "As has been stated ... the marks of the Great Man differ": This explains the physical marks of a wheel-turning king. All wheel-turning kings possess all thirty-two marks, but since the four kings differ, their marks have superiority and inferiority.

12.122

On the Śāstra's words, "If so, how does a wheel-turning king differ from a Buddha?": A question.

12.123

On the Śāstra's words, "The Buddha's marks of the Great Man ... therefore there is a difference": The answer. "In proper place" means directly in their proper position, such as the thousand-spoked wheel mark situated squarely under the feet. "Distinct" means clear and distinct, such as the thousand-spoked wheel mark being distinctly visible. "Complete" means perfect, namely the thousand spokes and so forth being fully complete. The Vibhāṣā states: "The Prajñapti-śāstra says: On the edge of Jambudvīpa, along the coast of the great ocean, there is a path for the wheel-turning king, one yojana wide. If a wheel-turning king does not appear in the world, it is submerged by water and none can traverse it. When he appears in the world, the ocean water recedes by one yojana, and this path then appears. Its bottom is spread with golden sand and naturally sprinkled with sandalwood-scented water. Whenever the wheel-turning king wishes to tour this continent, preceded and followed by the fourfold army, he traverses this path."

12.124

On the Śāstra's words, "Were there kings or not among the multitude of humans at the beginning of the kalpa?": The one line of verse below forms the third section, explaining minor kings and so forth at the beginning of the kalpa.

12.125

On "The Śāstra says ... living long and dwelling for a vast duration": This explains the time before eating solid food.

12.126

On the Śāstra's words, "There were beings of this kind ... appeared from this point onward": From this point onward, they gradually ate solid food and had no radiance; the light of the sun, moon, and fire appeared at this time. Prior to this, they consumed the earth-taste (pṛthivīrasa).

12.127

On the Śāstra's words, "Due to indulging in tastes ... vied to indulge in eating it": The second part, explaining the consumption of earth-cakes (pṛthivīparpaṭaka).

12.128

On the Śāstra's words, "The earth-cakes disappeared again ... forest creepers appeared": The third part, explaining the consumption of forest creepers (vanalatā).

12.129

On the Śāstra's words, "Because they vied to indulge in eating ... to serve as food": The fourth part, explaining the consumption of fragrant rice (śāli).

12.130

On the Śāstra's words, "Because this food was coarse ... male and female faculties arose": From this point onward, male and female faculties existed.

12.131

On the Śāstra's words, "Due to the difference of the two faculties ... first arose at this time": From this point onward, non-celibacy (abrahmacarya) existed.

12.132

On the Śāstra's words, "At that time the people ... began at this time": From this point onward, the karmic course of stealing existed.

12.133

On the Śāstra's words, "In order to prevent ... the name Kṣatriya": Explaining the existence of a ruler. Kṣatriya is translated here as "lord of the fields" (kṣetrapati).

12.134

On the Śāstra's words, "Honoured and supported by the great multitude ... headed by this king": Explaining that the establishment of the ruler's virtuous name was "Great." "Saṃmata" is translated here as "agreed upon by all."

12.135

On the Śāstra's words, "Some among the people of that time ... the name Brāhmaṇa": From this point onward, there were two castes.

12.136

On the Śāstra's words, "Later there was a king ... began at this time": Explaining that the karmic course of killing existed.

12.137

On the Śāstra's words, "There was a criminal at that time ... headed by this time": Explaining that false speech existed.

12.138

On the Śāstra's words, "During the period of decrease of a kalpa ... what are their characteristics?": From here onward is the third major division, explaining the calamities. Within this there are two parts: first, explaining the three minor calamities; second, explaining the three major calamities. This is the first, explaining the three minor calamities.

12.139

On "The Śāstra says ... arise at the end of an intermediate kalpa": Explaining the time of their arising. These various calamities have two things as their root: namely, indulgence in alien tastes and an innate indolence. Due to these afflictions, the kalpa gradually decreases and the three minor calamities occur.

12.140

On the Śāstra's words, "The three calamities are ... third, famine": Listing the names.

12.141

The treatise says: "Namely, at the end of an intermediate kalpa … slaughtering one another." This explains the name of the first [disaster], the kalpa of weapons.

12.142

The treatise says: "Moreover, at the end of an intermediate kalpa … difficult to cure." This explains the second, the kalpa of pestilence.

12.143

The treatise says: "Moreover, at the end of an intermediate kalpa … white bones and moving tallies." This is the third, the kalpa of famine.

12.144

The treatise says: "Due to two kinds of causes … is named 'having the assembly of noble ones'." This explains that there are two causes for the assembly.

12.145

The treatise says: "Regarding 'white bones' … boiling the broth and drinking it." This explains that there are two causes for the white bones.

12.146

The treatise says: "Regarding the words 'moving tallies' … so as to sustain what remains of life." This explains that there are two causes for moving tallies.

12.147

The treatise says: "However, there is an authoritative teaching … the disaster of famine arises." This relates the three wholesome causes for escaping the three disasters.

12.148

The treatise says: "When these three disasters arise … human lifespan gradually increases." This relates the duration of the three disasters. Weapons are the fastest, and famine lasts the longest time. They all state "seven" because it is simply the nature of things when the three disasters arise.

12.149

The treatise says: "In the eastern and western continents … in the northern continent there are none at all." This relates that among the four continents, the disasters occur only in Jambudvīpa.

12.150

The treatise says: "It was previously said that the disaster of fire incinerates the world." The following two verses clarify the second [topic], the three great disasters.

12.151

The treatise says: "The treatise says: … connected by wind." This relates the distinctions among the three disasters that are capable of destroying.

12.152

The treatise says: "These three disaster-knives … nothing remains." This relates that in the receptacle [world] that is destroyed, even the atoms are exhausted. The Vibhāṣā, scroll 133, states: "When the fire disaster arises, some say that the seven suns were previously concealed by Yugandhara; initially one sun rises, and when the world is destroyed, the remaining six suns gradually emerge, thus destroying the world. Some say that one sun divides into seven suns. Some say that one sun acquires sevenfold strength. Some say that the seven suns were previously hidden beneath the earth and gradually appear afterward. The correct explanation is: the predominant power of the karma of sentient beings causes the world to form; when the end of the kalpa is reached, because the power of karma is exhausted, disaster-fire arises in nearby places wherever [appropriate], such that even the Brahmā palaces are incinerated. When the water disaster arises, some say that rain of hot ash-water from the border of the Third Dhyāna can destroy the world. Some say it wells up from the water mandala below. The correct explanation is: the predominant power of the karma of all sentient beings causes the world to form; when the end of the kalpa is reached, because the power of karma is exhausted, disaster-water arises in nearby places wherever [appropriate], and by that cause and condition the world is destroyed. When the wind disaster arises, some say that wind arises from the border of the Fourth Dhyāna and can destroy the world. Some say that fierce wind arises from the wind mandala below. The correct explanation is: the predominant power of the karma of all sentient beings causes the world to form; when the end of the kalpa is reached, because the power of karma is exhausted, disaster-wind arises in nearby places wherever [appropriate], such that all is scattered and destroyed up through the Śubhakṛtsna Heaven." What this treatise says about the three disasters mostly does not follow the definitive doctrine of the Vibhāṣā; the Master of the Treatise had a different view.

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俱舍論疏 — Classical Chinese