English (machine translation)
Translation of 大乘百法明門論解
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- pramana-mt · Machine translation by Gemini 3.8 Flash (2026-10-21) of in.bauddha.taisho.1836 · Machine output without human authorship: no copyright is claimed (CC0 1.0). The original text keeps its own…
Contents
Text
1.1
Composed by Bodhisattva Vasubandhu.
1.2
Translated under imperial order by the Tripiṭaka Master Xuanzang of the Tang.
1.3
Annotated and explained by Dharma Master Kuiji of Cien of the Tang.
1.4
Augmented and revised by Dharma Master Putai of Lu'an of the Ming.
1.5
"Great" takes setting aside the lesser as its meaning; "vehicle" gets its name from conveying and carrying (name and meaning are stated mutually). "Hundred" is a number. "Dharmas" refers to mundane and supramundane dharmas; thus citta-dharmas are eight, caitasikas are fifty-one, rūpa is eleven, viprayuktas are twenty-four, and asaṃskṛta-dharmas are six; therefore they constitute the hundred dharmas of the Mahāyāna. "Understanding" (ming) is the undefiled wisdom of a bodhisattva, because it is capable of destroying darkness. "Gateway" (men) is expressed in the sense of opening up without obstruction. "Treatise" (śāstra) is the designation for discerning essence and characteristics and instructing disciples.
1.6
"Within the Maulībhūmi" refers to one of the five divisions of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra. "Briefly recording the names and numbers" means taking up the key links and grasping the essentials from among the six hundred and sixty dharmas, extracting the names, items, and numbers of these hundred dharmas. The author of this treatise was anxious to help others and wished students to understand the essentials.
1.7
Furthermore, explaining by applying the six compound analyses: "Mahāyāna" is the expressive teaching, which is inferior because it consists only of the four dharmas of sounds, names, sentences, and phonemes; the "hundred dharmas" are the signified matters, which are superior because they conceptually encompass all one hundred dharmas. Subordinating the superior to the inferior to reveal the superior by means of the inferior, saying "the hundred dharmas of the Mahāyāna," is a tatpuruṣa compound.
1.8
Furthermore, the hundred dharmas are the cognitive objects, which are superior because they represent the full number; "understanding" is the cognizing wisdom, which is inferior because, as a matter of dharma nature, it is merely one among the five viniyatas. Subordinating the inferior to the superior to reveal the inferior by means of the superior, saying "the understanding of the hundred dharmas," is a tatpuruṣa compound.
1.9
Furthermore, "understanding" is the cognizing subject, which is inferior because it is the wisdom among the viniyatas; "gateway" is the cognitive object, which is superior because it broadly encompasses the hundred dharmas. Subordinating the superior to the inferior to reveal the superior by means of the inferior, saying "the gateway of understanding," is a tatpuruṣa compound.
1.10
Furthermore, "gateway" is the signified matters and principles, which are superior because they broadly point to the hundred dharmas; "treatise" is the expressive teaching, which is inferior because it consists only of sounds, names, sentences, and phonemes. Subordinating the inferior to the superior to reveal the inferior by means of the superior, saying "the treatise of the gateway," is a tatpuruṣa compound.
1.11
Furthermore, the treatise is the essence, which is sounds, names, sentences, and phonemes; the gateway is the function, in that it has the function of non-obstruction upon the treatise. Subordinating the essence to the function and subsuming the function into the essence, saying "the gateway that is the treatise," is a karmadhāraya compound.
1.12
Furthermore, the treatise is the essence, taking the four dharmas of sounds, names, sentences, and phonemes; the Mahāyāna is the function, for upon this treatise's essence there are the two meanings of setting aside the lesser and conveying [beings], hence it is called Mahāyāna. Subordinating the essence to the function and subsuming the function into the essence, saying "the Mahāyāna that is the treatise," is a karmadhāraya compound.
1.13
Furthermore, the Mahāyāna encompasses teaching, principle, practice, and fruit, and is superior because it is the signified content; the treatise is the expressive capacity, which is inferior because it is only the teaching. Subordinating the inferior to the superior to reveal the inferior by means of the superior, saying "the treatise of the Mahāyāna," is a tatpuruṣa compound.
1.14
Furthermore, the six characters starting with "Great" are superior because they are the signified content; "treatise" is inferior because it is the expressive capacity, consisting only of teaching. Subordinating the inferior to the superior to reveal the inferior by means of the superior, saying "the treatise of the Gateway to Understanding the Hundred Dharmas of the Mahāyāna," is a tatpuruṣa compound (it can also be called a numeral-bearing tatpuruṣa).
1.15
Furthermore, the five characters starting with "Mahāyāna" encompass the hundred dharmas and are superior because they belong to the signified content; the two characters "gateway" and "treatise" are inferior because they are the expressive capacity. Subordinating the inferior to the superior to reveal the inferior by means of the superior, saying "the gateway-treatise of the understanding of the hundred dharmas of the Mahāyāna," is a tatpuruṣa compound (also a numeral-bearing tatpuruṣa compound).
1.16
Furthermore, the Mahāyāna is the essence of the expressive teaching, while the gateway-treatise is the function. Upon this essence of the teaching, there is the meaning-gateway of awakening and entering into the subtle principle, which has the function of resolving essence and characteristics, instructing disciples, severing evil, and producing good; hence it is named a treatise. Subordinating the essence to the function and subsuming the function into the essence, saying "the Mahāyāna that is the gateway-treatise," is a karmadhāraya compound. (This concludes the making of the ten explanations).
1.17
In Puruṣapura in North India—which here translates as "city of heroes"—there was a state preceptor of the country, a Brahmin of the Kauśika gotra, who fathered three sons, all named Vasubandhu. This translates as "Kin of the Gods" (Tianqin), [being named after] the younger brother of Śakra and descendant of King Viṣṇu. Although they shared the same name, they also had separate designations: the eldest was named Asaṅga, which translates as "Unattached," who was of the bodhisattva disposition; the youngest son's separate name was Viriñcivatsa, which translates as "Mother's Child," for viriñci translates as mother and vatsa translates as son, or also child. The middle son was broadly learned and heard much, completely penetrating the ancient records; his spiritual talent was outstanding and brilliant, his moral conduct pure and spotless, without match. Because the other brothers both had separate designations, the Dharma Master was simply named Vasubandhu, so there was no confusion. Relying on the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, he extensively composed treatises to explain the Mahāyāna and elucidate the Middle Way teaching of neither empty nor existent. (Detailed in the Life of Vasubandhu in the "Shen" case of the old canon).
1.18
As the World-Honoured One said: "All dharmas are without self."
1.19
"As the World-Honoured One said" was originally spoken by the Buddha; it is the treatise master's revering of the Dharma as having an origin. "All dharmas," and so forth, summarizes the hundred dharmas and the two kinds of selflessness as the essential doctrine, serving as the guiding principle of the entire treatise. If one investigates the doctrines adhered to, ordering the shallow and deep of the sacred teachings of the Buddha's entire life, they are divided into eight:
1.20
First, the school that asserts both self and dharmas exist. This school encompasses the doctrines of five of the twenty schools, namely the Vātsīputrīya, Dharmottarīya, Bhadrayānīya, Saṃmitīya, and Ṣaṇṇagarika schools, and perhaps also adopts a portion of the fundamental doctrines of the Sautrāntika school.
1.21
Second, the school that asserts dharmas exist but the self is non-existent. It completely encompasses three schools, namely the Sarvāstivāda, Haimavata, and Bahuśrutīya, and further incorporates a portion of the later tenets of the Mahīśāsaka school.
1.22
Third, the school that asserts dharmas lack past and future. It completely encompasses seven schools, namely the Mahāsāṃghika, Gokulika, Caitika, Aparaśaila, Uttaraśaila, Dharmaguptaka, and Kāśyapīya, and incorporates a portion of the fundamental doctrines of the Mahīśāsaka school.
1.23
Fourth, the school that asserts the present is both nominal and real. It encompasses the entirety of the Prajñaptivāda and a portion of the later Sautrāntika doctrine. These four schools above are exclusively Hīnayāna.
1.24
Fifth, the school that asserts the conventional is false and the ultimate is real, namely the Lokottaravāda.
1.25
Sixth, the school that asserts all dharmas are merely nominal, namely the Ekavyāvahārika. These two bridge both Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna.
1.26
Seventh, the school that asserts both [self and dharmas] are empty in the ultimate truth. Eighth, the school of the fully real in accord with principle. The latter two are exclusively Mahāyāna. The essential intent of this treatise is precisely the eighth school; among the three periods of the Saṃdhinirmocana, it belongs to the third period.
1.27
Regarding the three periods: in the first, the four Āgamas speak of existence; in the second period, the Prajñāpāramitā in eight sections speaks of emptiness; the third period is the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra, in which both emptiness and existence are displayed together: the teaching of the Middle Way.
1.28
What are all dharmas? What is selflessness?
1.29
There are five kinds of questions: questions asked to benefit and gladden sentient beings, questions asked out of incomprehension, questions asked out of foolishness, questions asked as a test, and questions asked out of contempt. This is a question asked to benefit and gladden sentient beings.
1.30
"All dharmas" are, in brief, of five kinds:
1.31
This is the general presentation of all dharmas. Stated according to principle, they are indeed immeasurable, because the dispositions and desires of sentient beings are immeasurable; therefore, the Yogācārabhumī begins with the collections of the five consciousnesses and ranges through to the six hundred and sixty dharmas of the dharma-dhātu. Now speaking of the five categories and hundred dharmas, is this not a summary of essentials? Hence it is said, "in brief, of five kinds." From here down to tathatā-asaṃskṛta, it answers the first question in general.
1.32
First, citta-dharmas; second, caitasika-dharmas; third, rūpa-dharmas; fourth, citta-viprayukta-saṃskāra-dharmas; fifth, asaṃskṛta-dharmas.
1.33
As for citta-dharmas, there are altogether six meanings: First, it is named citta in the sense of accumulating and generating, which belongs exclusively to the eighth [consciousness], because it accumulates all seeds and generates actual manifestations. Second, it is named citta in the sense of amassing, which belongs to the preceding seven pravṛtti-vijñānas which are capable of perfuming and amassing the seeds of all dharmas; or, accumulating and generating belongs to the actual manifestations of the preceding seven pravṛtti-vijñānas jointly accumulating and perfuming to generate seeds; or, it is named citta in the sense of amassing, which belongs to the eighth consciousness containing and amassing the seeds of all dharmas. Third, it is named citta in the sense of cognizing and thinking, because all are capable of cognizing and thinking upon their own portions of objects. Fourth, it is also named consciousness (vijñāna), in the sense of discernment. Fifth, it is also named mind (manas), in the sense of immediate succession. Sixth, or the eighth is named citta, the seventh is named manas, and the first six are named vijñāna; all these are divisions of citta.
1.34
Speaking of caitasika-dharmas, they possess three characteristics: first, always arising reliant upon citta; second, being associated with citta; third, being bound to citta. Possessing these three characteristics, they are named caitasikas; for they must rely on citta as their support before they can arise; contact and the rest are always associated with citta. Since it is said that they are associated with citta, it is because citta is not associated with citta itself; citta is not a caitasika; there is association with an other nature, not with one's own nature.
1.35
The meaning of association has four aspects: namely, sameness of time, support, cognitive object, and substance; only then is there association. When contact and the like arise with whatever citta, they belong to the contact and the like of that citta; hence they correspond to the three characteristics in sequence.
1.36
Rūpa-dharmas are the supports and cognitive objects of consciousness; they are the rūpa of material obstruction of the five sense faculties and five sense fields, also called rūpa possessing resistance, which is constituted by the eight dharmas of primary and derived elements, being the ten forms of rūpa; rūpa without resistance is the rūpa included in the sphere of phenomena (dharmāyatana).
1.37
Speaking of citta-viprayukta-saṃskāra-dharmas, the saṃskāra-skandha has two: first, associated saṃskāras, which are the caitasika-dharmas; second, dissociated saṃskāras, which are the twenty-four dharmas beginning with acquisition (prāpti) and ending with non-concordance (asāmagrī).
1.38
Speaking of asaṃskṛta-dharmas, they neither arise nor cease, neither go nor come, are neither that nor this, and are beyond acquisition and loss; distinguished from the conditioned, because they lack deliberate making, they are named unconditioned (asaṃskṛta).
1.39
First, because they are supreme; second, because they are associated with this; third, because they are images manifested by these; fourth, because they are distinctions of states; fifth, because they are revealed [by the former].
1.40
Saying that the eight kinds of citta-dharmas are first means that creating good and creating evil, transmigration through the five destinies, and even attaining Buddhahood are all this citta. Because among conditioned dharmas this is supreme, it is stated first. Saying "because they are associated with this" means that these caitasikas are constantly associated with that king of the mind. In comparison with the king of the mind, these are inferior; putting the superior first and the inferior second, they are therefore explained next. "Because they are images manifested by these" refers to the preceding rūpa-dharmas, meaning that these rūpa-dharmas cannot arise on their own, but must depend on the transformation and manifestation of the preceding two; although the self-authenticating part transforms them, it cannot directly cognize them. The word "image" is placed here to qualify it: the seeing part is also transformed by the self-authenticating part, but is not an image; or because it serves as the underlying substance along with the self-authenticating part; or to qualify the rūpa induced by reception as not being an image transformed by consciousness. When the sixth consciousness cognizes it, it takes that as the substance, and the substance is subsumed under the image; the first two are the transformers, and this is the transformed; putting the transformer first and the transformed second, it is therefore stated next. "Distinctions of states" means that these viprayukta-saṃskāras cannot arise on their own, but depend on the distinctions of the preceding three categories to be nominally established; the preceding three are real, while this one is nominal, which is why it is explained fourth. Saying "because they are revealed" means that these fifth, the asaṃskṛta-dharmas, are of six kinds; this asaṃskṛta's intrinsic nature is extremely profound, and if not explained in relation to phenomena, there would be no means to manifest it. Hence, relying on the preceding four's severing of defilement and attaining of purity, it is revealed; the preceding four are conditioned, while this is unconditioned; putting the existent first and the non-existent second, it is therefore explained last.
1.41
Such is the sequence:
1.42
This concludes the answer. Due to the above superior and inferior, active and passive, real and nominal, existent and non-existent, it says "such is the sequence." This briefly summarizes the text above, presenting an overview of the headings of the five categories; below, it lists in full the names and numbers of the hundred dharmas.
1.43
First, citta-dharmas, briefly, are of eight kinds:
1.44
This is the general presentation; below they are listed individually.
1.45
1. Eye-consciousness, 2. Ear-consciousness, 3. Nose-consciousness, 4. Tongue-consciousness, 5. Body-consciousness, 6. Mind-consciousness,
1.46
They are named according to their faculties because they possess five senses [of the relationship], namely: depending on, arising from, belonging to, assisting, [and being shaped by the faculty]. For example, with the exception of the consciousness arisen from a faculty, the other four are all consciousnesses dependent upon a faculty, etc., which is a tatpuruṣa compound (依主); 'faculty-arisen' is also a tatpuruṣa compound (依士). Although the collection of six consciousnesses all evolve depending on the manas, here this [sixth] is named according to its exclusive faculty, the manas, as 'depending on and arisen [from it],' so there is no confusion with the five consciousnesses. This is stated, moreover, in view of the stage where one has not yet attained mastery; or else it is named 'mental consciousness' (mano-vijñāna) solely because it depends on the manas. When distinguishing the origins of the names of consciousnesses, the [terms] citta and manas are not parallel cases.
1.47
Seventh, manas-consciousness;
1.48
In Chinese this is rendered as 'mental consciousness' (意識). Just as the storehouse consciousness is named consciousness [because] it is itself the mind (citta), [so this seventh is consciousness because] it is itself the manas (意). The sixth, mental consciousness (mano-vijñāna), is like the eye-consciousness being named consciousness [because] it is different from the eye [faculty]; [similarly it is different from the manas]. However, the various holy teachings, fearing that this [seventh] would be confused with that [sixth], only established the name 'manas' for the seventh; furthermore, it is to distinguish it from citta and vijñāna, since its accumulating and discerning are inferior to the other consciousnesses; or else, desiring to show that this [seventh] serves as the immediate basis for that mental consciousness [of the sixth], they merely established the name 'manas'.
1.49
Eighth, ālaya-consciousness.
1.50
In Chinese this is rendered as 'storehouse consciousness' (藏識), because it can store all seeds; furthermore, it possesses the threefold meaning of 'storehouse', namely: storing agent (能藏), that which is stored (所藏), and that which is attached to as a storehouse (執藏); because it serves mutually as cause with defilement, and sentient beings grasp it as their inner self. Due to these three meanings it obtains the name 'storehouse', and the storehouse is itself consciousness.
1.51
Second, the mental concomitant dharmas (caitasika-dharma). There are briefly fifty-one kinds, divided into six categories: 1. the omnipresent (sarvatraga), of which there are five; 2. the specific (viniyata), of which there are five; 3. the wholesome (kuśala), of which there are eleven; 4. the fundamental afflictions (kleśa), of which there are six; 5. the secondary afflictions (upakleśa), of which there are twenty; 6. the indeterminate (aniyata), of which there are four.
1.52
This presents the total number to mark and list the section headings; below, the names are listed following each section. As for 'omnipresent' (sarvatraga), they can function throughout the four kinds of universality of minds; that is, they can pervade all three natures, all eight consciousnesses, all nine grounds, and all times. As for 'specific' (viniyata), they are able to arise by distinctly apprehending their respective objects. The objects apprehended are of four kinds: the desired object, the determined object, the familiar object, and the investigated object; because each apprehends differently, they are called 'specific'. The explanation will appear in the text below. As for the 'eleven wholesome ones', it is because they can only arise in wholesome minds; because they are concordant and beneficial in both this world and other worlds; and because their nature is free from fault and defilement, surpassing evils. As for 'afflictions' (kleśa), it is because their nature is subsumed under fundamental afflictions; furthermore, because they can produce the secondary afflictions, they are called fundamental distress and disturbance. 'Trouble' (惱) means disruption. They disturb and agitate sentient beings, causing them to dwell constantly in saṃsāra. As for 'secondary afflictions' (upakleśa), they are varieties of states following those fundamental afflictions and of an outflowing (niṣyanda) nature; this will also be seen in the text below. As for 'indeterminate' (aniyata), because they are unlike the preceding five categories of mental concomitants, being indeterminate with respect to wholesome, defiled, and so forth; not definitely pervading minds like contact (sparśa) and the rest; and not definitely pervading all grounds like desire (chanda) and the rest, they are not designated with a definite name.
1.53
First, the five omnipresent [dharmas] are:
1.54
This marks them separately; the names are listed below.
1.55
1. attention (manaskāra), 2. contact (sparśa), 3. feeling (vedanā), 4. perception (saṃjñā), 5. volition (cetanā).
1.56
Attention (manaskāra) has the nature of alerting the mind-seeds that ought to arise, and its function is directing the mind to incline toward its own object. Contact (sparśa) has the nature of making the mind and mental concomitants touch the object, and its function is serving as the basis for perception, feeling, volition, and so forth. Feeling (vedanā) has the nature of experiencing the marks of favorable, unfavorable, and neutral objects, and its function is giving rise to desire, for it can produce desires for union, separation, or neither; it is also said to make the mind and so on produce aspects of pleasure, sorrow, and neutrality (these explanations differ in words but are identical in meaning). Perception (saṃjñā) has the nature of grasping characteristics of the object, and its function is formulating various names and words; that is, because it establishes the boundaries of its own object, it is only then able to give rise to various names and words accordingly. Volition (cetanā) has the nature of impelling the mind into activity, and its function is directing the mind toward wholesome states and so forth; because it can grasp marks such as right causes of the object, it drives its own mind to be able to create wholesome [deeds] and so forth.
1.57
Second, the five specific [dharmas] are:
1.58
This marks them separately; the names are listed below.
1.59
1. desire (chanda), 2. resolve (adhimokṣa), 3. mindfulness (smṛti), 4. concentration (samādhi), 5. wisdom (prajñā).
1.60
Desire (chanda) has the nature of longing for an object one finds pleasure in, and its function is serving as the basis for diligence. Resolve (adhimokṣa) has the nature of affirming and holding to a determined object, and its function is being incapable of being turned away; that is, through the power of evidence from perverse or correct teaching and reasoning, it scrutinizes, decides, affirms, and holds to the apprehended object, and because of this, differing conditions cannot divert it; if it is a dubious object, resolve is entirely absent; 'superior' (勝) is itself 'understanding' (解). Mindfulness (smṛti) has the nature of causing the mind to remember clearly and not forget a familiar object, and its function is serving as the basis for concentration (samādhi); that is, because it repeatedly recalls and holds an object previously experienced without forgetting or losing it, it can lead to concentration. Concentration (samādhi), translated here as 'equipoise' (等持), has the nature of causing the mind to be focused and undispersed upon an investigated object, and its function is serving as the basis for knowledge; that is, among objects of gain, loss, or neither, concentration causes the mind to be focused and undispersed, and relying upon this, determinate knowledge arises; the expression 'focused mind' reveals that wherever it wishes to abide, it is immediately able to abide, not that it is restricted to a single object; were it not so, when during the path of vision (darśana-mārga) one sequentially contemplates the various truths and the preceding and subsequent objects differ, there would be no concentration. Wisdom (prajñā) has the nature of discerning an investigated object, and its function is severing doubts; that is, in contemplating objects of gain, loss, or neither, through wisdom's investigation it attains certainty. When it was said above that the explanation will appear below, the meaning was just this. (If you wish to obtain more details, please consult the fifth fascicle of the Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi).
1.61
Third, the eleven wholesome [dharmas] are:
1.62
This marks the heading; they are listed separately below.
1.63
1. faith (śraddhā), 2. diligence (vīrya), 3. shame (hrī), 4. guilt (apatrāpya), 5. non-greed (alobha), 6. non-anger (adveṣa), 7. non-delusion (amoha), 8. pliancy (prasrabdhi), 9. vigilance (apramāda), 10. equanimity (upekṣā), 11. non-harming (ahiṃsā).
1.64
Faith (śraddhā) has as its nature deep conviction, joy, and aspiration toward the real, the virtuous, and the capable, and purity of mind; its function is counteracting lack of faith and delighting in the good. That is, having deep conviction and endurance toward the true facts and principles of all dharmas; having deep faith and joy toward the true and pure virtues of the Three Jewels; and having deep faith that there is power in all mundane and supramundane good, that one can obtain and achieve them, and giving rise to aspiration. These are the three kinds of faith. 'Having purity of mind as its nature' means that this nature is clear and can purify the mind and so forth, just as a water-clearing pearl can clear muddy water; hence it is called 'having purity of mind as its nature'. Diligence (vīrya) has as its nature courage and persistence in the tasks of cultivating the wholesome and abandoning the unwholesome; its function is counteracting indolence and fulfilling the good. That is, cultivating the wholesome category and abandoning the unwholesome category; 'courage' signifies superior progress, setting aside all defiled dharmas; 'persistence' signifies pure refinement, setting aside the pure indeterminate. It is also said: 'courageous without cowardice, persistent without fear.' 'Fulfilling the good' means that bringing wholesome deeds to complete perfection is called fulfilling the good. Therefore, while the three roots perform the good, this is called fulfilling the good, because it can fulfill them. Someone might ask: 'The Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi states that the single dharma of diligence comes after the three roots; why does the Hundred Dharmas state it immediately after faith?' The answer is: 'The Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi follows the sequence of what is based upon what, while this [text] follows the sequence of cause and dependence. For faith is the basis of desire, and desire is the basis of diligence; therefore here, right after faith, diligence is mentioned; diligence is indeed vīrya, but diligence (勤) runs through the three natures, whereas progress (進) is subsumed only under the wholesome nature.' As for 'the sequence of what is based upon what': the roots depend on diligence to establish the three [dharmas] such as equanimity; the four dharmas that serve as the basis must rationally be stated together; therefore diligence is only stated after the three roots. Shame (hrī) has as its nature revering and respecting the worthy and good based on the power of oneself and the Dharma; its function is counteracting shamelessness and bringing evil conduct to rest. Regarding 'the power of oneself and the Dharma': 'oneself' refers to one's own person; 'the Dharma' refers to the teaching of Dharma; it means, 'Given such a person as myself and my understanding of such a Dharma, would I dare commit various evils?' Guilt (apatrāpya) has as its nature slighting and rejecting violence and evil based on the power of the world; its function is counteracting absence of guilt and bringing evil conduct to rest. The censure and rebuke of worldly people is called the power of the world; it disdains evil-doers without associating with them, and rejects evil actions and deeds without committing them. Non-greed (alobha) has as its nature non-attachment to existence and the requisites of existence; its function is counteracting greedy attachment and performing good. Regarding 'existence and the requisites of existence': the former word 'existence' is the fruit of the three realms of existence; 'requisites of existence' are the causes of the three realms of existence. Non-anger (adveṣa) has as its nature absence of malice toward suffering and the requisites of suffering; its function is counteracting malice and performing good. Regarding 'suffering and the requisites of suffering': 'suffering' refers to the three sufferings; 'requisites of suffering' are the causes of suffering. Non-delusion (amoha) has as its nature clear understanding of various facts and principles; its function is counteracting foolish delusion and performing good. Pliancy (prasrabdhi) has as its nature freedom from heaviness, harmonizing and easing the body and mind, and fitness; its function is counteracting torpor and bringing about the transformation of the basis (āśraya-parāvṛtti). Leaving behind heaviness is called 'light' (輕); harmonizing and easing the body and mind is called 'peace' (安); that is, this suppresses and removes dharmas that obstruct concentration, causing the foundation to become increasingly comfortable. 'Fitness' means being capable and competent to endure. 'Transformation of the basis' means causing the body and mind that serve as the basis to cast off heaviness and attain security. Vigilance (apramāda) has as its nature guarding and cultivating through diligence and the three roots regarding what is to be cultivated and abandoned; its function is counteracting laxity and bringing to fulfillment all mundane and supramundane wholesome deeds. 'Guarding and cultivating': guarding against the evil to be severed so that it does not arise, and cultivating the wholesome dharmas to be cultivated so that they increase. 'Diligence and the three roots': this vigilance is precisely the guarding and cultivating function of these four dharmas; it does not have a separate substantial entity. Or someone might say: 'Faith and so on also possess the function of guarding and cultivating; why are they not relied upon to establish it?' The answer is: 'The remaining six are weaker in power and function compared to the four; hence they are not relied upon for its establishment. Why are they particularly weak? Because they are not wholesome roots, and because they do not universally urge [the mind] on.' Equanimity (upekṣā) has as its nature causing the mind to remain in impartiality, uprightness, and effortless abiding through diligence and the three roots; its function is counteracting restlessness and abiding in stillness. 'Formational equanimity' (行捨) is equanimity within the aggregate of formations (saṃskāra-skandha), distinguished from the equanimity of the aggregate of feeling (vedanā-skandha). Regarding 'causing the mind to be impartial, etc.': because equanimity causes the mind to depart from torpor and restlessness, the initial mind is impartial, the next mind is upright, and the final mind is effortless; these are the different stages of beginning, middle, and end. This too consists of the four dharmas; apart from those four dharmas, there are no distinct characteristics or functions. How is it known that there are none distinct? The answer is: 'What can cause stillness is precisely the four dharmas; what is caused to be still is precisely the mind and so on.' Or someone might say: 'Since it is identical with the four dharmas, why establish it separately?' The answer is: 'If it were not established separately, this capability would be concealed.' Non-harming (ahiṃsā) has as its nature not injuring or harassing sentient beings, which is non-anger; its function is being able to counteract harming, and compassion. That is, it is simply non-anger that does not injure or harass sentient beings, nominally designated as non-harming. Non-anger directly opposes anger that terminates the lives of beings; non-harming only opposes harm that injures and harasses beings. Non-anger gives happiness; non-harming uproots suffering. These two are crude distinctions in appearance; in truth, non-anger has a real self-entity, whereas non-harming is a nominal designation established based on a portion of it, in order to display the distinct aspects of benevolence (maitrī) and compassion (karuṇā), because those two are supreme in benefiting and gladdening sentient beings.
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Fourth, the six afflictions (kleśa) are:
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This separately marks the heading; the names are listed below.
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1. greed (rāga), 2. anger (pratigha), 3. conceit (māna), 4. ignorance (avidyā), 5. doubt (vicikitsā), 6. wrong view (kudṛṣṭi).
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"Greed" (rāga) has having attachment to existence and the requisites of existence as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-greed and produce suffering. "Producing suffering" means that the appropriation of aggregates arises through the power of craving. "Anger" (pratigha/dveṣa) has hostility toward suffering and the requisites of suffering as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-anger and serve as the basis for unease and evil conduct. "Unease" means that because one harbors hostility in one's mind and mostly abides in suffering, one is therefore uneasy. "Pride" (māna) has relying on oneself against others and elevating oneself as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-pride and produce suffering. "Producing suffering" means that if one has pride, one's mind is not humble toward virtues and the virtuous; because of this, one cycles boundlessly through death and rebirth and undergoes various sufferings. "Ignorance" (avidyā/moha) has confusion and darkness regarding principles and phenomena as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-delusion and serve as the basis for all afflictive defilements. "Serving as the basis for defilement" means that through ignorance arise delusion, wrong certainty, greed, and other afflictions, secondary afflictions, and karmas, which can bring about defiled dharmas in future births. "Doubt" (vicikitsā) has hesitation regarding the principles of the truths as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-doubt and the class of wholesome [dharmas]. "Obstructing the class of wholesome [dharmas]" means that because of hesitation, the wholesome does not arise. "Wrong view" (mithyā-dṛṣṭi/kudṛṣṭi) has inverted reasoning regarding the principles of the truths and defiled wisdom as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct correct view and incur suffering. For those with wrong view mostly undergo suffering. There are five such views: view of the person, extreme view, false view, attachment to views, and attachment to rules and vows. These six are the innate ones; if one unfolds wrong view into ten, they are the intellectually formed afflictions. Furthermore, among the ten afflictions, anger is exclusively unwholesome, while the remaining nine all pertain to both the veiled-indeterminate and the unwholesome.
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Explanation of the Mahāyāna Treatise on the Gateway to Understanding the Hundred Dharmas, Fascicle One
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Composed by Bodhisattva Vasubandhu
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Translated under imperial decree by Xuanzang, Tripiṭaka Master of the Tang
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Annotated and explained by Dharma Master Kuiji of Cien of the Tang
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Augmented and revised by Dharma Master Putai of Lu'an of the Ming
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Fifth, the twenty secondary afflictions (upakleśa):
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This separately states the heading; below, it separately lists the names.
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1. Wrath, 2. Enmity, 3. Affliction, 4. Concealment, 5. Deceit, 6. Flattery, 7. Arrogance, 8. Harmfulness, 9. Jealousy, 10. Parsimony, 11. Shamelessness, 12. Non-dread, 13. Lack of faith, 14. Laziness, 15. Heedlessness, 16. Torpor, 17. Restlessness, 18. Forgetfulness, 19. Incorrect knowing, 20. Distraction.
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"Wrath" (krodha) has bursting out in anger in confrontation with unbeneficial objects before oneself as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-wrath and grasping weapons. "Grasping weapons" means weapons and arms; because one who harbors wrath and enmity mostly produces violent and evil bodily expressive karma, it is subsumed under a portion of anger. "Enmity" (upanāha) is preceded by wrath, has harboring evil without relinquishing it and forming grudges as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-enmity and burning vexation. "Burning vexation" means that one who holds a grudge cannot bear or endure it and is constantly burning with vexation. "Affliction" (pradāsa) is preceded by wrath and enmity, has dwelling on and encountering violent evil with indignation and obstinacy as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-affliction and stinging. "Dwelling on and encountering" means pursuing past evils and encountering present contrary conditions, so that the mind becomes indignant and obstinate, mostly bursting out in clamorous, violent, savage, base, and harsh speech to sting others; this too is a portion of anger. "Concealment" (mrakṣa) has hiding one's own committed transgressions out of fear of losing profit and reputation as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-concealment and regretful vexation. "Regretful vexation" means that if one conceals transgressions, one will inevitably have regretful vexation later and be uneasy; it consists of two portions, greed and delusion: if one conceals transgressions without fearing future suffering, it is subsumed under a portion of delusion; if one conceals transgressions fearing the loss of profit and reputation, it is subsumed under a portion of greed. "Deceit" (māyā) has falsely displaying virtues and trickery in order to protect profit and reputation as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-deceit and wrong livelihood. "Falsely displaying, etc." means that the deceitful person harbors ulterior motives in mind and mostly displays untruthful, wrong livelihoods; this is a portion of greed and delusion. "Flattery" (śāṭhya) has crooked insincerity and falsely setting up unusual deportment to mislead others as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-flattery and receiving instruction. "Misleading others, etc." means that the flatterer, to mislead others, accommodates the times and falsely devises expediencies to win others' favor; or hides his own faults and cannot accept the correct instruction of teachers and friends; it is also a portion of greed and delusion. "Arrogance" (mada) has infatuated haughtiness through deep attachment to one's own flourishing circumstances as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-arrogance and serving as a basis for defilement. "Serving as a basis for defilement" means that being intoxicated with arrogance produces and increases all defiled dharmas; this is a portion of greed. "Non-arrogance" is non-greed. "Harmfulness" (vihiṃsā) has lack of compassion toward sentient beings and injuring them as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-harmfulness and harassing. "Harassing" means that one who is harmful harasses others; it is subsumed under a portion of anger. If one discusses the distinct senses of harmfulness and anger: harmfulness obstructs non-harmfulness and directly obstructs compassion (karuṇā); anger obstructs non-anger and directly obstructs loving-kindness (maitrī). Furthermore, anger can sever life, whereas harmfulness only injures others; this is their difference. "Jealousy" (īrṣyā) has sacrificing oneself for fame and gain, inability to endure others' prosperity, and envy as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-jealousy and sorrow. "Sorrow" means that a jealous person, upon hearing of or seeing others' success, deeply harbors sorrow and unease; it also takes a portion of anger as its entity. "Parsimony" (mātsarya) has clingingly craving the Dharma and wealth, inability to give charitably, and stingy hoarding as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct non-parsimony and mean hoarding; it is also a portion of greed. "Shamelessness" (āhrīkya) has disregard for oneself and the Dharma, and slighting the worthy and virtuous as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct shame (hrī) and produce and increase evil conduct. "Disregard" means that having no regard for oneself and the Dharma, one slights the worthy and virtuous and feels no shame over faults and evils; hence it can obstruct shame and produce and increase evil conduct. "Non-dread" (anapatrāpya) has disregard for the world and honoring violent evil as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct dread (apatrāpya) and produce and increase evil conduct. "Disregard for the world, etc." means that having no regard for the world, one honors violent evil and feels no shame over faults and wrongs; hence it can obstruct dread and produce and increase evil conduct. "Lack of faith" (āśraddhya) has lack of acquiescence, joy, and desire toward reality, virtues, and capabilities, and mental impurity as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct a pure mind and serve as the basis for falling. "Basis for falling" means that those who lack faith are mostly lazy. "Laziness" (kausīdya) has sluggishness regarding the cultivation or abandonment of wholesome and unwholesome classes as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct vigor (vīrya) and increase defilement. "Increasing defilement" means that a lazy person nourishes defilement. "Heedlessness" (pramāda) has inability to guard against or cultivate defiled and pure classes and dissipation as its nature; its function is obstructing non-heedlessness (apramāda) and serving as the basis for increasing evil and diminishing the wholesome. What is the entity of this heedlessness? Answer: "Laziness and the three roots [of non-greed, non-anger, and non-delusion] failing to guard against or cultivate defiled and pure dharmas are collectively called heedlessness; apart from these four dharmas, it has no separate intrinsic nature." One may ask: "Do not pride, doubt, and so forth also have this capacity? Why are they not established as the basis?" Answer: "Compared to the four, the power and function of pride and the rest are weak and inferior; therefore it is not established on them." Why do these four dharmas specifically surpass the remaining ones such as pride? Answer: "Because they obstruct the three wholesome roots and obstruct pervasive exertion; the others do not have this capacity, which is why they do not surpass them." "Torpor" (styāna) has causing the mind to be unserviceable with respect to objects as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct pliancy (prasrabdhi) and vipasyanā. One may ask: "What is the difference between torpor and delusion?" Answer: "Delusion has confusion and darkness regarding objects as its nature and directly obstructs non-delusion, but is not muddled heaviness; torpor has muddled heaviness regarding objects as its characteristic and directly obstructs pliancy, but is not confusion and darkness; therefore the two are not the same." "Restlessness" (auddhatya) has causing the mind to be unquiet with respect to objects as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct equanimity (upekṣā) and śamatha. "Forgetfulness" (muṣitasmṛtitā) has the inability to remember clearly with respect to cognitive objects as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct right mindfulness and serve as the basis for distraction. "Basis for distraction" means that when mindfulness is lost, the mind is distracted. Regarding this forgetfulness, some say: "It is subsumed under a portion of mindfulness (smṛti), because it is mindfulness associated with affliction." Some say: "It is subsumed under a portion of delusion, because the Yogācāra[-bhūmi] states that this is a portion of delusion, and delusion causes one to lose mindfulness; hence it is called forgetfulness." Some say: "It is subsumed under a portion of both, because the preceding two texts speak by abbreviation and complementarity." "Incorrect knowing" (asaṃprajanya) has mistaken understanding with respect to the observed object as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct right knowing and committing transgressions. "Committing transgressions" means that those with incorrect knowing mostly commit transgressions. This dharma, some say, is subsumed under a portion of wisdom (prajñā), because it is wisdom associated with affliction. Some say: "It is subsumed under a portion of delusion, because the Yogācāra[-bhūmi] states that this is a portion of delusion, and causing knowing to be incorrect is called incorrect knowing." Some say: "It is subsumed under a portion of both, because the preceding two texts speak by abbreviation and complementarity." "Distraction" (vikṣepa) has causing the mind to drift and wander as its nature; its function is being able to obstruct right samādhi and serve as the basis for evil wisdom. "Basis for evil wisdom" means that one who is distracted gives rise to evil wisdom. One may ask: "What is the difference between distraction and restlessness?" Answer: "Distraction causes the mind to change its object; restlessness causes the mind to change its comprehension—such is their distinguishing mark." That which was stated earlier, 'following the differentiated states of the afflictions and because they are of an outflowing nature', its meaning appears precisely here. The ten beginning with wrath and enmity together with forgetfulness, incorrect knowing, and heedlessness—these thirteen dharmas—are the differentiated states of the fundamental [afflictions]; while shamelessness, non-dread, restlessness, torpor, distraction, lack of faith, and laziness—these seven dharmas—are of an outflowing nature of the fundamental [afflictions]. Some say: "Since these seven have separate entities, why are they called 'outflowing'?" Answer: "Because they arise only with the fundamental [afflictions] as their cause, they are called outflowing."
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Sixth, the four indeterminate (aniyata) [dharmas]:
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This separately states the heading; below, it lists the names:
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1. Drowsiness, 2. Regret, 3. Investigation, 4. Analysis.
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"Drowsiness" (middha) has causing the body to be unpliable and obscurity and contraction as its nature; its function is obstructing contemplation (that is, vipaśyanā). This means that in the state of drowsiness, the body is not pliable, the mind is extremely dark and weak, and does not operate through the [sense] doors. "Obscurity" distinguishes it from being in samādhi; "contraction" differentiates it from waking time. This shows that drowsiness is not without entity and function, yet in mindless states this name is metaphorically established, as with other hindrances and fetters, because it is associated with mind. "Regret" (kaukṛtya) has regretting deeds done badly as its nature; its function is obstructing tranquility (that is, śamatha). This is a metaphorical establishment of the cause's name for the result, because one first dislikes deeds done and only later feels regret. Regretting what was not done before is also subsumed under regret, as in regretfully saying: 'I did not do such a deed before; this is my regret.' According to one opinion, these two each have distinct entities, because their cognitive aspects differ from other mental factors; in accord with their characteristic of delusion, they are said to be conventionally existent. Regarding "investigation and analysis" (vitarka and vicāra): "investigation" means seeking out, having causing the mind to be hurried and operating coarsely with respect to mental-speech objects as its nature; "analysis" means scrutinizing, having causing the mind to be hurried and operating subtly with respect to mental-speech objects as its nature. The functional activity of both dharmas is to serve as the basis for the states of dwelling and not dwelling at ease of body and mind. "Mental-speech objects" means objects apprehended by the mind, which mostly rely on conventional names, and are hence called mental-speech objects. One may ask: "Are the entities of investigation and analysis nominal or real?" Answer: "They both take a portion each of cetanā and prajñā as their entity. If they cause the mind to be at ease, that is the portion of cetanā; if they cause the mind not to be at ease, that is the portion of prajñā. For cetanā is gradual and subtle, whereas prajñā is urgent and coarse. Thus one knows that when causing ease, one employs cetanā without prajñā; when causing unease, one employs prajñā without cetanā. According to Great Master Tongzhao's explanation, there are secondary and primary [functions]: if one primarily employs cetanā, urgent prajñā follows cetanā and can cause the mind to be at ease; if one primarily employs prajñā, gradual cetanā follows prajñā and likewise causes unease. Thus they are employed together."
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Third, the rūpa-dharmas, briefly, are of eleven kinds:
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Regarding 'form' (rūpa): there is form in the sense of resistance (pratighāta), and form in the sense of color (varṇa). The faculties that serve as its basis are only five, while the spheres that are its objects are six—that is, the reflections manifested by both. This distinctively marks the section; below, their names are separately listed.
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