大乘義章 15.31

15.31

第一釋名并辨其相。頭陀胡語，此方正翻名為抖擻。此離著行，從喻名之，如衣抖擻能去塵垢，修習此行能捨貪著，故曰抖擻。頭陀之行，具有十六，經論隱顯故說十二。言十六者，衣中有四、食中有六、處中有六，是十六也。衣中四者，一糞掃衣、二者毳衣、三者納衣、四者三衣。糞掃衣者，所謂火燒、牛嚼、鼠齧、死人衣等，外國之人如此等衣棄之巷野，事同糞掃，名糞掃衣。行者取之，浣染縫治用以供身。問曰：何故唯受此衣？人有三品，謂下、中、上，下品之人治生估販種種邪命而得衣服；中品之人遠離前過，受僧中衣、檀越施衣；上行之人不受僧衣、檀越施衣，受糞掃衣。何故不受僧中之衣？若受此衣，僧法須同斷理僧事、分處作使。斷事儐人亂心發道，為是不受僧中之衣。何故不受檀越施衣？為衣追求，多墮邪命。又若受彼檀越施衣，則生親著難得出離。又若受彼檀越施衣，得處偏親、於不得處便為疎礙，妨於等化。又若受彼檀越施衣，數得生慢；不得嫌怨，言彼無智不識福田應施不施，或自鄙恥而生憂惱。又若受彼檀越施衣，數往廢道，不去致恨。又復由受檀越施衣，憎嫉好人讒謗良善不欲使住。見是多過，是故不受檀越施衣。何故唯受糞掃之衣？省事增道、離過無罪，故唯受之。言毳衣者，如《涅槃》說「鳥狩細毛名之為毳。」行者若無糞衣可得，求此為衣。言納衣者，朽故破弊，縫納供身，不著好衣。何故須然？若求好衣，生惱致罪，費功廢道，為是不著。又復好衣未得，道人生貪著處。又在曠野多致賊難，或至奪命。有是多過，故受納衣。言三衣者，謂五條衣、七條、大衣。上行之流唯受此三，不畜餘衣。何故而然？白衣求樂畜種種衣，外道共行、裸形無恥，佛住中道捨離二邊，故畜三衣。又求多衣費功廢道，少不濟事，故畜三衣。然此三衣供身事足，若營作務大小行來著五條衣，為諸善事著七條衣，化攝俗人令其敬信須著大衣。又在屏處著五條衣，入眾之時著七條衣，若入王宮聚落之所須著大衣。又復調和溫暖之時著五條衣，寒冷之時加七條衣，寒苦嚴切加以大衣。故往一時，正冬入夜天寒裂竹，如來於彼初夜分時著五條衣，夜久轉寒加七條衣，於夜後分天寒轉盛加以大衣。佛便作念：「未來世中不忍寒苦諸善男子，以此三衣足得充身。」以此多義故畜三衣。食中六者，一是乞食、二次第乞、三者不作餘食法食、四一座食、五一揣食亦名節量、六不中後飲漿。言乞食者，人有三品，謂下中上。下品之流雖復出家，邪命自活，耕田種植治生方轉作諸工巧，種種邪命而自存活；中品之人捨離前過，受僧中食、檀越請食；上品之人不受僧食、檀越請食，唯行乞食。何故不受僧中之食？過同前衣，是故不受。檀越請食，過亦同前。以何義故專行乞食？所為有二：一者為自省事修道、二者為他福利世人。次第乞者，通亦是其乞食中收，為彰乞時離於偏過，是以別論。凡愚貪味棄貧從富，小乘悲狹捨富從貧，上行之類離貪去狹等慈眾生，不簡貧富次第等乞。所言不作餘食法者，如律中說：有人雖復次第乞食，於所求處數得正食，作餘食法數數食之。行者作念：「此餘食法，世尊雖間開聽病者，我今無病不應受之。」是故不作餘食法食。通而攝之，此亦是其一座食收，故經論中多不別說。律中別者，彼一座食，不於中前食餘小食。餘小食者，此門遠離數數正食。有此不同，是故別說。一座食者，有人雖不數數正食，而於中前數食其餘餅菓粥等。行者作念：「愚夫貪身，為增煩惱受數數食。我今為道不為養身，為破煩惱不為增結，故受一食。」又復思念：「為求一食已多妨道，況求多食。」故唯一食。又觀飲食多苦中生，若受多食惱亂彌多，故受一食。又觀飲食信心所施，一食叵消，況復多食。一揣食者，經中亦名節量食也。一受便止，名一揣食。節儉少食，名節量食。何故次辨？有人雖復受一食法，於一食中恣意飲噉腹滿氣脹，睡眠消息半日不減，妨修道法，故須節量。又復多食，增長煩惱，難可折伏，故須節量。又彌多食，增長睡眠，難消致病，令身不安，故須節量。節至幾許？隨已所堪，三分留一施諸鳥獸，餘便自食，能少益善。不中後飲漿者，有人雖復節量飲食而猶貪味，於其中後飲種種漿石蜜漿等。為求是漿多致邪命，費功廢道，是故不飲。又觀此心難可放縱，如馬無勒左右噉草，不能疾疾隨御者意；加以轡勒，方能速進隨人意去，故須裁斷。處中六者，第一須在阿蘭若處、二在塚間、三在樹下、四在露地、五是常座、六是隨坐。阿蘭若者，此翻名為空閑處也。何處是乎？如《雜心》說「一弓四肘，去村五百弓名一拘盧舍。一拘盧半名阿蘭若處，計有三里許。」頭陀行者極近在此，能遠益善。何故在此？行者作念：「我本在家，父母親屬共相纏縛，為是捨之。今出家已，若還師徒同學知識共相結著，與俗無異。」是故須捨在蘭若處。又在聚落，男女參雜多增欲染，不宜住中，是故須在阿蘭若處。又近聚落，音聲憒鬧妨修定意，是故須在阿蘭若處。言塚間者，塚間多有死尸爛壞膖脹臭穢，覩之易入不淨觀門，故在塚間。又復塚間，死尸破壞蟲食火燒分離散滅，覩之易入無常觀門，故在塚間。又復塚間骸骨分散，覩之易入空無我觀，故在塚間。言樹下者，前在塚間觀察死尸得道事辦，故捨塚間來至樹下。又前塚間取死尸相，然彼多有哭泣等聲妨修正觀，故來樹下繫念思察。又樹蔭覆，事同半舍，安身修道，故在樹下。又佛賢聖得道證果多皆依樹，故在樹下。露地坐者，樹下蔭濕久居致患，故至露地。又復樹下著樹心生，或復分別此好彼惡，為除是患，故須捨樹來至露地。明了顯現所為無礙，故在露地。又復露地月光明照，心想明淨易入空定，故在露地。言常坐者，四威儀中行立太苦、臥則太樂，坐離二邊堪能長久，故須常坐。又復行立心則掉動難可攝持，臥則昏沈多入睡眠，離沈掉，故須常坐。又求道者大事未辨，諸煩惱賊常伺人便，不宜安臥，故須常坐。又復坐中多有成辨，食易消化氣息調和，故須常坐。言隨坐者，隨有草地得處便坐，故曰隨坐。隨別細分有此十六，經論就此隱顯離合宣說十二。相狀如何？依《四分律》，衣中立二，食中立四，處中立六，合為十二。衣中二者，一者納衣、二著三衣，餘皆不論。食中四者，第一乞食、第二不作餘食法食、三一坐食、四一揣食。次第乞者，乞食中收；中後不飲漿者，一坐中攝，故不別論。處中說六，備如上辨。依《涅槃經》，衣中立三，食中立三，處中立六，合為十二。衣中三者，一著糞衣、二著毳衣、三畜三衣，餘皆不論。食中三者，所謂乞食、一坐、一揣，餘皆不說。次第亦是乞食中收。不作餘食及中後不飲漿，一坐中攝，故不別論。處中六者，備如上辨。依《大智論》，亦說十二，與前復異。依彼論中，就衣立二：一著納衣、二著三衣，與《四分》同。食中立五：一者乞食、二次第乞、三一坐食、四節量食、五中後不飲漿。不作餘食法攝入一坐食，更不別立。處中說五，除却隨坐。餘經論中更應有異，自所未見。皆是聖說，趣行皆得（此一門竟）。

First, explaining the names and distinguishing their characteristics. "Dhūta" is a Central Asian word; in this land, it is properly translated as "shaking off" (dǒusǒu). This is a practice of leaving behind attachment and is named after a metaphor: just as shaking off a garment can remove dust and dirt, cultivating this practice can cast away greedy attachment, hence it is called "shaking off." The practices of a dhūta fully consist of sixteen; because the sūtras and treatises leave some implicit and others explicit, twelve are taught. As for the sixteen: four concern clothing, six concern food, and six concern dwelling places—these make sixteen. As for the four concerning clothing: first, rag robes; second, down robes; third, patched robes; fourth, the three robes. As for rag robes, these refer to clothes burnt by fire, chewed by oxen, gnawed by rats, clothes from corpses, and so on. In foreign lands, people cast away such clothes in alleys and wilds; their condition is identical to sweepings, hence they are called "rag robes" (pāṃśukūla). The practitioner takes them, washes, dyes, sews, and repairs them to provide for his person. Question: Why accept only such robes? People are of three grades: lower, middle, and higher. People of the lower grade engage in livelihoods and trade through various kinds of wrong livelihood to obtain clothing. People of the middle grade distance themselves from the previous faults, accepting clothing from the Saṅgha and clothing offered by donors (dānapati). People of superior conduct do not accept robes from the Saṅgha or robes offered by donors; they accept [only] rag robes. Why not accept robes from the Saṅgha? If one accepts these robes, the rules of the Saṅgha require that one participate in deciding Saṅgha matters and taking assigned duties. Deciding matters and expelling individuals agitates the mind and impedes the Way; therefore, one does not accept robes from the Saṅgha. Why not accept robes offered by donors? Seeking after robes leads mostly into wrong livelihood. Furthermore, if one accepts robes offered by those donors, affection and attachment will arise, making transcendence difficult. Furthermore, if one accepts robes offered by those donors, one becomes partial and intimate toward those from whom one receives them, while toward those from whom one does not receive them, estrangement and hindrance arise, impeding impartial conversion. Furthermore, if one accepts robes offered by those donors, receiving them frequently breeds arrogance; not receiving them breeds resentment and grievance, saying, "They lack wisdom, do not recognize a field of merit, and fail to give when they should give," or one feels self-deprecating shame and generates distress. Furthermore, if one accepts robes offered by those donors, frequent visits neglect the Way, yet not going incurs resentment. Moreover, by accepting robes offered by donors, one envies good people and slanders the virtuous, not wishing them to remain. Seeing these many faults, one therefore does not accept robes offered by donors. Why accept only rag robes? It saves trouble, advances the Way, leaves behind faults, and is blameless; therefore, one accepts only them. As for down robes, as the Nirvāṇa [Sūtra] says, "The fine down of birds and beasts is called down." If the practitioner has no rag robes available, he seeks this to make robes. As for patched robes, they are decayed, old, torn, and tattered; one sews and patches them to cover the body, not wearing fine clothes. Why must this be so? If one seeks fine clothes, it gives rise to affliction, incurs guilt, wastes effort, and abandons the Way; therefore, one does not wear them. Furthermore, before fine clothes are obtained, they are an occasion for a practitioner of the Way to generate greed and attachment. Moreover, in the wilderness they often invite the danger of thieves, or even lead to loss of life. Having these many faults, one therefore accepts patched robes. As for the three robes, they are the five-strip robe, the seven-strip robe, and the great robe. Those of superior conduct accept only these three and do not keep extra robes. Why is this so? Laypeople seeking pleasure keep various kinds of clothes; non-Buddhists practice together going naked without shame; the Buddha abides in the Middle Way, casting off both extremes, and therefore keeps three robes. Furthermore, seeking many robes wastes effort and abandons the Way, while having too few fails to suffice; therefore, one keeps three robes. Moreover, these three robes suffice to maintain the body: when working, carrying out chores, and moving about for greater or lesser needs, one wears the five-strip robe; for various wholesome deeds, one wears the seven-strip robe; to convert and gather laypeople, causing them to revere and believe, one must wear the great robe. Furthermore, in secluded places one wears the five-strip robe; when entering the assembly, one wears the seven-strip robe; if entering a royal palace or an inhabited settlement, one must wear the great robe. Moreover, in mild and warm weather, one wears the five-strip robe; when cold, one adds the seven-strip robe; when bitter cold is severe, one adds the great robe. Thus once in the past, in the depth of winter when night fell and the cold was so bitter it split bamboo, the Tathāgata wore the five-strip robe in the first watch of the night; as the night wore on and it grew colder, he added the seven-strip robe; in the final watch of the night, when the cold became still more intense, he added the great robe. The Buddha then thought: "In future ages, good sons who cannot endure bitter cold will find that these three robes suffice to provide for their bodies." Because of these many reasons, one keeps three robes. As for the six concerning food: first, alms begging; second, begging in succession; third, eating without the ritual of leftover food; fourth, eating in one sitting; fifth, eating a measured morsel, also called eating with restraint; sixth, not drinking gruel after midday. As for alms begging, people are of three grades: lower, middle, and higher. Although those of the lower grade have gone forth, they sustain themselves through wrong livelihood: plowing fields, planting, engaging in business and trade, and performing various crafts—supporting their lives through diverse wrong livelihoods. People of the middle grade cast off the previous faults, accepting food from the Saṅgha and food by invitation from donors. People of the higher grade do not accept Saṅgha food or food by invitation from donors; they exclusively practice alms begging. Why not accept food from the Saṅgha? The faults are the same as with the clothing mentioned before; therefore, they do not accept it. Food by invitation from donors also shares the same faults as before. For what reason does one exclusively practice alms begging? There are two purposes: first, for oneself, to save trouble and cultivate the Way; second, for others, to benefit and bring blessings to worldly people. Begging in succession is, broadly speaking, also subsumed under alms begging; to make clear that when begging one leaves behind biased faults, it is discussed separately. Ordinary fools, craving taste, abandon the poor and follow the rich; the Hīnayāna, with narrow compassion, abandons the rich and follows the poor; those of superior conduct leave behind greed and abandon narrowness, treating sentient beings with equal compassion, begging successively and impartially without discriminating between poor and rich. As for what is called "not performing the ritual of leftover food": as stated in the Vinaya, although some people beg in succession, they repeatedly obtain proper meals at the places they seek, and performing the ritual of leftover food, they eat repeatedly. The practitioner thinks: "Although the World-Honoured One occasionally permitted this ritual of leftover food for the sick, I am now not ill and should not accept it." Therefore, one eats without performing the ritual of leftover food. In a comprehensive sense, this is also subsumed under eating in one sitting; hence, most sūtras and treatises do not explain it separately. What is distinguished in the Vinaya is that eating in one sitting means not eating other minor food before midday. Other minor food: this category distances oneself from repeatedly eating proper meals. Because of this difference, it is explained separately. As for eating in one sitting: although some people do not repeatedly eat proper meals, before midday they repeatedly eat other cakes, fruits, gruels, and so on. The practitioner thinks: "Fools crave their bodies and take repeated meals to increase their afflictions. I am now acting for the sake of the Way, not to nourish the body; to destroy afflictions, not to increase bonds; therefore, I accept only one meal." Furthermore, he reflects: "Seeking a single meal already creates many obstacles to the Way, how much more so seeking multiple meals!" Therefore, he takes only one meal. Furthermore, he observes that food mostly arises from suffering; if one receives many meals, agitation and confusion multiply; therefore, he takes only one meal. Furthermore, he observes that food is given out of faith; even a single meal is difficult to digest, how much more so multiple meals! As for eating a single morsel, in the sūtras it is also called eating a measured amount. Stopping once one has received [food] is called eating a single morsel. Being frugal and eating little is called eating a measured amount. Why is it distinguished next? Although some people undertake the practice of a single meal, within that single meal they drink and eat at will until their bellies are stuffed and bloated, and they sleep and rest for half the day without abating, which obstructs the cultivation of the Way; therefore, they must measure the amount. Furthermore, eating much increases afflictions, which are difficult to subdue; therefore, one must measure the amount. Furthermore, eating still more increases sleep, makes digestion difficult, causes illness, and renders the body uneasy; therefore, one must measure the amount. To what extent should it be restrained? According to what one can bear, leave one-third to give to birds and beasts, and eat the remainder oneself; the less one can eat, the better. As for not drinking gruel after midday: although some people restrain the amount of food, they still crave taste, and after midday they drink various juices, sugar-cane juice, and the like. Seeking such juices mostly leads to wrong livelihood, wastes effort, and abandons the Way; therefore, one does not drink them. Furthermore, one observes that this mind is hard to let loose: like a horse without a bridle that grazes on grass to the left and right, unable quickly to follow the driver's intention; only when fitted with bit and reins can it advance swiftly and follow the person's will; therefore, one must cut [this desire] off. As for the six concerning dwelling places: first, one must stay in an araṇya; second, in a charnel ground; third, beneath a tree; fourth, in the open air; fifth, always sitting; sixth, sitting wherever one finds a place. As for an araṇya, this is translated as a "quiet, secluded place." Where is it? As the Za xin [lun] says: "One bow is four cubits. Five hundred bows from a village is called one krośa. One and a half krośas is called an araṇya, calculated to be about three li." The dhūta practitioner stays at this closest distance; being further is even better. Why stay here? The practitioner thinks: "Originally, when I was at home, my parents and relatives mutually bound me, and for this reason I abandoned them. Now that I have gone forth, if I were still to form attachments with teachers, disciples, and fellow students, it would be no different from the secular life." Therefore, one must abandon them and stay in an araṇya. Furthermore, in settlements, men and women mingle, which greatly increases sensual defilement; it is not suitable to dwell there; therefore, one must stay in an araṇya. Furthermore, near settlements, noisy sounds hinder the cultivation of a concentrated mind; therefore, one must stay in an araṇya. As for the charnel ground: in a charnel ground there are many corpses, rotting, decomposed, bloated, and foul-smelling; seeing them makes it easy to enter the portal of contemplating impurity; therefore, one stays in a charnel ground. Furthermore, in a charnel ground corpses are broken, eaten by worms, burnt by fire, and scattered into destruction; seeing them makes it easy to enter the portal of contemplating impermanence; therefore, one stays in a charnel ground. Furthermore, in a charnel ground skeletons are scattered apart; seeing them makes it easy to enter the contemplation of emptiness and non-self; therefore, one stays in a charnel ground. As for beneath a tree: previously, staying in the charnel ground and contemplating corpses, the accomplishment of the Way was achieved; therefore, leaving the charnel ground, one comes beneath a tree. Furthermore, previously in the charnel ground one took up the signs of corpses, yet there were many sounds of weeping and the like that obstructed the cultivation of right contemplation; therefore, one comes beneath a tree to tie one's mindfulness and reflect. Furthermore, the tree shade covers one, acting like half a house to settle the body and cultivate the Way; therefore, one stays beneath a tree. Furthermore, the Buddhas, sages, and worthies mostly attained the Way and realized the fruits by relying on trees; therefore, one stays beneath a tree. As for sitting in the open air: beneath a tree it is shady and damp, and dwelling there long brings sickness; therefore, one goes to the open air. Furthermore, beneath a tree a mind of attachment to the tree arises, or one discriminates between this one being good and that one bad; to eliminate this flaw, one must leave the tree and come to the open air. Everything is clearly revealed and whatever one does is unhindered; therefore, one stays in the open air. Furthermore, in the open air the moonlight shines brightly, and mental thoughts are clear and pure, making it easy to enter the samādhi of emptiness; therefore, one stays in the open air. As for always sitting: among the four deportments, walking and standing are too painful, while lying down is too pleasant; sitting avoids both extremes and can be sustained for a long time; therefore, one must always sit. Furthermore, during walking and standing, the mind is restless and agitated, difficult to collect; while lying down, it is drowsy and dull, frequently falling into sleep; to avoid dullness and restlessness, one must always sit. Furthermore, for a seeker of the Way, the great matter is not yet accomplished, and the thieves of affliction are constantly watching for an opportunity; it is not suitable to lie down comfortably; therefore, one must always sit. Furthermore, while sitting, much is accomplished: food is easily digested and the breath is harmonized; therefore, one must always sit. As for sitting wherever one finds a place: wherever there is grassy ground, taking the place one finds, one sits down; hence it is called "sitting wherever one finds a place." Subdivided individually, there are these sixteen; the sūtras and treatises, making implicit or explicit, combining or separating them, proclaim twelve. What are their forms? According to the Sifen lü (Dharmaguptaka Vinaya), two are established for clothing, four for food, and six for dwelling places, making twelve in total. As for the two concerning clothing: first, patched robes; second, wearing the three robes; the rest are not discussed. As for the four concerning food: first, alms begging; second, eating without the ritual of leftover food; third, eating in one sitting; fourth, eating a single morsel. Begging in succession is subsumed under alms begging; not drinking gruel after midday is subsumed under eating in one sitting; therefore, they are not discussed separately. The six concerning dwelling places are taught fully as distinguished above. According to the Nirvāṇa Sūtra, three are established for clothing, three for food, and six for dwelling places, making twelve in total. As for the three concerning clothing: first, wearing rag robes; second, wearing down robes; third, keeping the three robes; the rest are not discussed. As for the three concerning food: namely, alms begging, eating in one sitting, and eating a single morsel; the rest are not mentioned. Begging in succession is also subsumed under alms begging. Not performing the ritual of leftover food and not drinking gruel after midday are subsumed under eating in one sitting; therefore, they are not discussed separately. The six concerning dwelling places are fully as distinguished above. According to the Dazhidu lun, twelve are also taught, differing again from the previous ones. According to that treatise, concerning clothing two are established: first, wearing patched robes; second, wearing the three robes—the same as the Sifen [lü]. Concerning food, five are established: first, alms begging; second, begging in succession; third, eating in one sitting; fourth, eating a measured amount; fifth, not drinking gruel after midday. The ritual of not eating leftover food is subsumed under eating in one sitting and is not established separately. Concerning dwelling places, five are taught, omitting sitting wherever one finds a place. In other sūtras and treatises there may be further variations that I have not myself seen. All are sacred teachings; taking up any of them is acceptable. (This concludes the first section.)