大乘法苑義林章 2
English (machine translation) 2
- Language
- English
Contents
- 2.46 — 5 parts
2.1
Composed by [Kuai]ji.
2.2
Chapter on the Piṭakas
2.3
The piṭakas are discriminated briefly through ten sections: 1. the causal origination of the councils, 2. the increase and decrease of names and numbers, 3. differentiating eliminations and establishments, 4. identifying their intrinsic nature, 5. explaining their names and meanings, 6. revealing their distinctions, 7. showing the general and specific categories spoken by the Buddha himself, 8. the establishments by masters and disciples, 9. discrimination of sequence, and 10. resolving doubts and difficulties.
2.4
First, as for the causal origins of the compilation: among all texts there is a separate one-fascicle work entitled *Account of the Compilation of the Tripiṭaka* (*Jieji sanzang zhuan*), as well as the *Account of the Transmission of the Dharmapiṭaka* (*Fu fazang zhuan*), fascicle two of the *Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa* (*Dazhidu lun*), fascicle two of Tripiṭaka Master Paramārtha's *Commentary on the Samayabhedoparacanacakra* (*Buzhi shu*), fascicle nine of the *Great Tang Records on the Western Regions* (*Da Tang Xiyu ji*), together with the *Cāturvargika-vinaya* (*Sifen lü*) and so forth. Now I shall examine them in detail and present them in combined form. If I were to record each separately in full, I fear the text would be excessively voluminous and hard for students to grasp. The *Records on the Western Regions* states: 'In the exact centre of the country of Magadha is the place where ancient kings had their capital. It produces the supreme, auspicious kuśa grass, hence it is called the City of Superior Kuśa Grass (Kuśāgrapura). High mountains surround it on all four sides as outer walls; it opens to a ravine path on the west and opens a mountain gate on the north. It is long from east to west and narrow from north to south, over one hundred and fifty li in circumference; the remaining foundations of the inner city are over thirty li in circumference. Going north from the mountain city's north gate for about one li, one arrives at the Kalandaka Bamboo Grove. Going five or six li southwest of the bamboo grove to the shady northern side of the southern mountain, inside a great bamboo forest there is a large stone chamber; this is the place where Mahākāśyapa made the compilation. King Ajātaśatru built various halls and chambers for the compilers; this is on the shady northern side of the mountain to the southwest, outside the north gate of the mountain city.' Paramārtha states: 'The Saptaparṇaguha of Rājagṛha.' The *Account of the Compilation of the Piṭaka* states: 'North of the city of Sāṅkāśya.' These three accounts are identical [in substance]. The *Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa* says that 'the compilation took place on Gṛdhrakūṭa Mountain,' but this is incorrect. That mountain lies fourteen or fifteen li due north of the royal palace city, adjoining the southern face of the northern mountains. The compilation took place outside the northern gate of the great city; the recorded traces still exist today, hence we know that [claim] is mistaken. Although the three texts use different names, the location is not different. Fascicle eleven of the *Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa* states: 'When the Buddha entered extinction, the earth trembled in six ways, the rivers flowed backward, violent winds and black clouds arose, thunder, lightning, hail, and rain fell, shooting stars fell everywhere, lions and fierce beasts roared and bellowed, devas and humans wailed and wept, and all devas and humans uttered these words: "How swiftly the Buddha has attained nirvāṇa!" At this time the calamities and anomalies were limitless and boundless; the great holy ones all entered quiescent extinction.' The *Records on the Western Regions* states: 'At that time Mahākāśyapa was sitting in quiet meditation in the mountain forest. Suddenly bright light shone forth, and he saw the earth quake. He said: "What portent is this, being so extraordinary?" Viewing with the divine eye, he saw the Buddha, the World-Honoured One, entering parinirvāṇa between the twin trees.' The *Upadeśa* states: 'The sons of the gods of the six heavens of desire up to the Śubhakṛtsna heavens saw that the arhats had all attained parinirvāṇa, and thought to themselves: "Now that the sun of the Buddha has set, the disciples likewise sink into concealment," and so forth, as extensively spoken. "Now that the king of elephants has departed, the young elephants also follow. Now that the merchant of the Dharma has left, from whom shall we seek the Dharma jewel?" At that time the devas paid homage to Kāśyapa's feet and spoke this verse: / "The elder has already removed desire, anger, and conceit, / His form is like a pillar of purple-gold. / Above and below, majestic and incomparably sublime, / His eyes are pure like lotus blossoms." / They addressed Kāśyapa: "Does the benevolent one know? The boat of the Dharma is wrecked, the fortress of the Dharma has collapsed, the ocean of the Dharma has dried up, and the banner of the Dharma has fallen. The lamp of the Dharma is about to go out, the people of the Dharma are about to depart, those who practice the path are few, and evil people become ever more numerous. You should establish the Buddha's Dharma with great compassion!" At that time Mahākāśyapa's mind was like a great ocean, clear, still, and unmoved. After a long while, he replied: "It is indeed as you say." He silently accepted their request. Having paid homage to his feet, the devas suddenly disappeared.' Fascicle two of Tripiṭaka Master Paramārtha's *Commentary on the Samayabhedoparacanacakra* states: 'Seven days after the Buddha attained parinirvāṇa, Kāśyapa gave instructions to his disciples, intending to go to the city of Kuśinagara. On the road he met an outsider named Upaka (which here means "Near to Nature"). Kāśyapa asked: "Where have you come from?" The outsider replied: "I have come from the place of the World-Honoured One's nirvāṇa. The Buddha has attained parinirvāṇa seven days ago; immeasurable devas and humans have burnt incense, scattered flowers, and offered various offerings. I picked up this mandārava flower at the Buddha's place." He showed it to Kāśyapa. Kāśyapa went to the place of Ajātaśatru and said to the king: "I require eight troughs; may the king order them brought." The king complied with the instruction. He also requested the king's physician, and the king again complied. He asked the physician about various medicines: which medicine treats wind, and which medicine treats sores? He again requested them from the king, and the king gave them all accordingly. He ground the medicines to powder and boiled them into a paste, placing them into the eight troughs. On that very day he reported to Ajātaśatru: "The Buddha has attained parinirvāṇa seven days ago." Hearing these words, the king swooned and died. Kāśyapa placed the king successively into each trough, and when he reached the eighth trough the king revived; aided by the superior power of the medicines, the king was resuscitated. After three such announcements, the king died upon hearing them each time, and by being placed successively into the troughs as before, he revived again. Kāśyapa expounded to him: "All conditioned things return to destruction; all are impermanent, and the Tathāgata is no exception. King, do not grieve or worry; you should propagate the true Dharma to repay the Buddha's kindness, and you should go together with your retinue to the Buddha's place." The king together with his retinue and Mahākāśyapa reached the city of Kuśinagara in the time it takes to bend and stretch an arm. When the king saw the Buddha, he swooned and died; Kāśyapa again placed him in the medicine troughs, and up to the eighth trough the king revived. The Buddha brought forth both feet outside his robe to receive Kāśyapa's homage. When the disciples of the four assemblies saw that the Buddha had attained nirvāṇa, none entered quiescent extinction before Kāśyapa had arrived. Once Kāśyapa arrived, there was nothing further to wait for, and countless holy ones also entered parinirvāṇa. Since so many had attained nirvāṇa, there were no holy ones to maintain [the teaching]; with no one to maintain it, it was feared that the true Dharma would come to an end. Kāśyapa then said to those who had not yet entered extinction: "Holy ones, you need not enter extinction yet. We should repay the kindness of the Buddha's Dharma by compiling the Tripiṭaka taught by the Tathāgata to benefit sentient beings. If you do not follow my words, you will incur a duṣkṛta offense." Having thus addressed them, few entered extinction.' The *Records on the Western Regions* states: 'At that time Mahākāśyapa said to his disciples: "The sun of wisdom has set, and the world is plunged in darkness. The good guide has departed far away, and sentient beings stumble and fall." Indolent monks congratulated one another, saying: "The Tathāgata has entered quiescent extinction; we are now at ease! If we commit any infractions, who can scold or restrain us?" Hearing this, Kāśyapa was all the more deeply grieved, and thought of compiling the Dharmapiṭaka to discipline infractions according to the Dharma.' Paramārtha states: 'Kāśyapa had two disciples: one named Nanda and the other named Upananda. Seeing that the Buddha had attained nirvāṇa, they felt great joy. At that time the four assemblies reported this to Kāśyapa; Kāśyapa rebuked them and drove them out of the assembly, intently thinking of compiling [the teachings].' The *Account of the Compilation of the Piṭaka* states: 'The humans and devas of the four assemblies divided the Buddha's relics into eight parts; having built ten stūpas over the ashes and charcoal from burning the Buddha and over the bed on which the Buddha lay....' The *Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa* and the *Records on the Western Regions* state: 'Mahākāśyapa struck a bronze gaṇḍī atop Mount Sumeru and spoke this verse: / "Disciples of the Buddha! / If you are mindful of the Buddha, / You should repay the Buddha's kindness / And not enter nirvāṇa." / This sound of the gaṇḍī conveyed Kāśyapa's words, and it was heard throughout the three-thousandfold world. All the great disciples who had attained supernormal powers assembled at Kāśyapa's place. Kāśyapa addressed them: "The Buddha's Dharma is on the verge of extinction. Among the great disciples, those who know the Dharma and preserve the Dharma are also following into extinction; sentient beings of future ages are truly pitiable. When the compilation is finished, you may enter extinction as appropriate." All the great assembly who came remained in accordance with the instruction, amounting to nine hundred and ninety-nine people, excluding only Ānanda.' Paramārtha states: 'There were four hundred and ninety-nine people, excluding only Ānanda (Qingxi).' The *Account of the Compilation of the Piṭaka* states: 'There were eighty thousand, all of whom were free of outflows (anāsrava).' This account generally includes both those in training (śaikṣa) and those beyond training (aśaikṣa). The *Cāturvargika-vinaya* states: 'First there were five hundred, and later Pūrṇa arrived with another five hundred; they were separated in time.' Paramārtha states: 'During the summer retreat on the fifteenth day of the fourth month, with King Ajātaśatru serving as the great donor (dānapati): while the Tathāgata was in the world, the disciples would pay homage to the Tathāgata in the morning and evening. Now during the summer retreat, it was divided into three times—morning, evening, and midday—to pay homage and make offerings to the relics.' The *Upadeśa* states: 'Because Bimbisāra attained the path, eighty-four thousand of his retinue also attained the path accordingly. Bimbisāra had instructed that food and drink be constantly provided in the palace to make offerings to a thousand people; therefore Ajātaśatru did not cut off this practice. Although the holy ones were numerous, only one thousand were retained to carry out the compilation. If more had been retained, they would have had to beg for food outside, and it was feared that debates with outsiders would hinder and neglect the Dharma affairs. At that time Mahākāśyapa went with the one thousand people to the compilation site and said to Ajātaśatru: "You may supply us with food." This was at the time of reciting the precepts on the fifteenth day of the third month of the summer retreat.' The *Records on the Western Regions* states: 'They assembled on the initial fifteenth day of the summer retreat.' The *Upadeśa* states: 'Kāśyapa entered concentration and examined the great assembly to see who had not yet exhausted their outflows; he saw only that Ānanda was still in the stage of training. Rising from dhyāna, he pulled Ānanda out: "Your fetters are not yet exhausted; you should not remain here." Ānanda wept in shame and thought to himself: "For twenty-five years I served the Buddha from behind and attended to his needs, yet I never suffered such distress." He said to Kāśyapa: "I have the ability and could long ago have attained the path, but by the Dharma of all buddhas, an arhat may not attend to needs and run errands, and therefore I retained the remaining fetters." Mahākāśyapa said: "You have further offenses. First, the Buddha did not wish for women to go forth; you then earnestly petitioned the Buddha to grant permission, and because of this the true Dharma declined by five hundred years. You should now make repentance for a duṣkṛta." Ānanda replied: "I had pity on Gautamī. Furthermore, the Dharma of all buddhas has the four assemblies; could it be that our Buddha alone should not have them?"' At the end of the 'Miscellaneous Chapter' (*Kṣudrakavastu*) of the *Cāturvargika-vinaya* it states: 'Mahāprajāpatī the bhikṣuṇī had kindness toward the Buddha. When the Buddha was young he lost his mother, and she took him in and raised him; therefore she could be permitted ordination.' 'Second, Kāśyapa further said: "When the Buddha was about to enter nirvāṇa, near the city of Kuśinagara, his back ached. Spreading the uttarāsaṅga folded fourfold to lie down, he said: 'I need water.' You did not supply it." Ānanda replied: "At that time five hundred carts had crossed the stream and cut through it, making the water muddy; because of that I did not fetch it." Kāśyapa further said: "Even if the water was muddy, the Buddha possessed supernormal power and could make the muddy water of a great ocean clear again. Why did you not fetch it? This is your offense. You should make repentance for a duṣkṛta."' The *Cāturvargika-vinaya* states: 'Devas were also able to make the water clear.' 'Third, Kāśyapa further said: "The Buddha asked you, saying: 'If there is someone capable of cultivating the four bases of supernormal power, he may remain in life for an eon or a little less than an eon; I am indeed fond of cultivating them.' Yet you did not reply. Three times he asked, yet you remained silent. Because of you, the Buddha entered nirvāṇa early; you should make repentance for a duṣkṛta." Ānanda replied: "Because I was blinded by Māra, it happened thus; it was not out of an evil mind." Fourth, Kāśyapa further said: "When you folded the Buddha's robe, why did you tread upon the saṃghāṭī with your feet? You should make repentance for a duṣkṛta." Ānanda replied: "At that time a great wind arose, and there was no one to help me; it blew down and fell under my feet. It was not out of disrespect that I trod upon the Buddha's robe."' The *Cāturvargika-vinaya* states: 'When sewing the Buddha's robe, he trod upon the Buddha's robe.' 'Fifth, Kāśyapa further said: "Why did you show the Buddha's concealed privities to women after the parinirvāṇa? This is shameful for the Buddha. You should make repentance for a duṣkṛta." Ānanda replied: "At that time I thought: if women see the Buddha's concealed privities, they will feel shame at the ugliness of the female form, desire to obtain a male body to cultivate the Buddha's bodily marks, and plant various roots of goodness. Therefore I showed it to them. It was not that I disregarded shame and deliberately broke the precepts."' In the *Cāturvargika-vinaya* this one is not present; instead, there is failing to ask about the minor and subtle precepts as one, the Buddha sending him to be an attendant and Ānanda refusing as one, and women defiling the Buddha's feet as one, thus making eight in total. In the *Account of the Compilation of the Piṭaka*, only four are mentioned: ordaining women, treading on the robe, being asked for water and not providing it, and failing to ask about the precepts. The *Upadeśa* states: 'Mahākāśyapa said: "You should repent these six offenses of yours." Ānanda said "yes" and knelt long in repentance.' Although it says there are six, the text enumerates only five; the text thus appears to have an omission.
2.5
The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (Sifen lü) states: "Ānanda answered: 'Indeed, I did not recognize these as offenses. It is because I trust the words of the elders that I now confess.' Having completed his confession, he was led outside, and they said to Ānanda: 'Only after you have attained the exhaustion of outflows may you enter.' When Kāśyapa finished speaking, he closed the door himself. The great assembly deliberated on reciting the vinaya, and Aniruddha said: 'Gavāṃpati, a disciple of Śāriputra, understands the vinaya. He is now dwelling in heaven in the park of the Śirīṣa trees; let us send a messenger to invite him to come.' Kāśyapa dispatched a messenger to summon Gavāṃpati, saying: 'The Saṃgha in Jambudvīpa has a great Dharma affair and now quickly summons you; you should come in haste.' The messenger then bowed at the feet of the Saṃgha. Having bowed to the Saṃgha, he flew through the sky like a bird and reached the Śirīṣa Park, delivering the inquiry according to his instructions. Gavāṃpati asked the messenger: 'Is it not because of a dispute that you have come to call me? Has there been any schism in the Saṃgha?' The messenger replied, 'No.' 'Has the sun of the Buddha set?' The messenger replied, 'Yes, the Buddha has already passed into parinirvāṇa.' Gavāṃpati said, 'How swiftly the Buddha has passed into parinirvāṇa! Where is my preceptor, Śāriputra, now?' The messenger replied, 'The preceptor has also entered nirvāṇa.' He asked the same regarding Mahāmaudgalyāyana, and the messenger answered that he too had passed away. Gavāṃpati said: 'The Buddha's Dharma is about to disperse; the great beings have passed away; sentient beings are pitiable! Where are Ānanda and Rāhula now?' The messenger replied: 'Ānanda witnessed the Buddha's nirvāṇa and weeps in grief, unable to console himself. As for Rāhula, he has attained arhatship and merely contemplates impermanence.' Gavāṃpati said: 'I have lost the great master free of desire, and my preceptor has also passed away; what benefit is there in remaining?' He immediately displayed supernormal transformations and entered nirvāṇa. From his body water poured forth, flowing down in four streams to where Kāśyapa was. From within the water came a voice reciting a gāthā: 'Gavāṃpati bows his head / To the elder Saṃgha of foremost wondrous wisdom. / Hearing of the Buddha's passing into parinirvāṇa, I follow him away, / Just as when a great elephant departs, the young elephant follows.' At that time, the messenger took his robes and bowl and returned to the Saṃgha." The Account of the Rehearsal of the Canon (Jiezang zhuan) states: "At that time Aniruddha addressed Kāśyapa, saying: 'The bhikṣu Gavāṃpati is in the Trāyastriṃśa heaven, an arhat with outflows exhausted, but he has not come to assemble now.' Kāśyapa summoned him, but he refused to come: 'The World-Honoured One has entered nirvāṇa, and the world is empty. What is there to seek?'" The Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra states: "At that time, Ānanda sought the exhaustion of outflows with fervent striving until he was exhausted. Laying down to rest on his pillow, he suddenly attained the Way, like the sun dispelling darkness, fully endowed with the three knowledges and the six supernormal powers. In the night he went to the Saṃgha hall and circled the door, calling out. Kāśyapa bade him enter through the keyhole and pay homage to the assembly of monks." The Account of the Rehearsal of the Canon states: "Ānanda then sat beneath a tree, extinguishing the fetters and exhausting his outflows. Countless devas surrounded Ānanda as he went to the great assembly, fearless as a lion. Kāśyapa saw him from afar, and more than eighty thousand in the assembly stood with joined palms to welcome him. Kāśyapa raised his hand, saying, 'Welcome, Ānanda.' Ānanda then sat on a high seat and put the assembly of monks in order. Kāśyapa raised his voice and called out loudly to sentient beings: 'Whoever wishes to cross over the world, let them all come here! The various Dharmas taught by the Buddha to remove the suffering of sentient beings shall be expounded by Ānanda and heard in the ten directions!' Devas, nāgas, ghosts, spirits, the fourfold assembly of disciples, the noble ones of the four fruits, and kings with their armies all arrived upon hearing the voice. The great assembly sat in order, covering twelve yojanas square. Ānanda was in their midst like the brilliant full moon, with Śakra on his right and Brahmā on his left, attending upon Ānanda just as when the Buddha was alive. Then Śakra, lord of the devas, recited a gāthā in praise, and all the devaputras were delighted, just as when they had surrounded the Buddha at the turning of the wheel of the Dharma. Ānanda was fearless, his appearance majestic like the brilliance of the sun. Because he had newly exhausted his fetters, his deportment was like a mountain peak, and the nape of his neck had a halo of light shining upon the great assembly, so that all who beheld him sighed in admiration. Māra, hearing of his fame, took his wife, children, ministers, and soldiers and also came to that place. Pāpīyas thought to himself: 'One Buddha has passed into parinirvāṇa, yet three more have emerged: Ānanda has brought forth the rehearsal, Kāśyapa has light upon his crown, and Aniruddha has penetrating vision observing the great trichiliocosm. When Gautama entered nirvāṇa, I thought I was emancipated, but the virtue of these three occupies a truly vast place. Yet the Dharma has already declined, and there are no rivals left; I must devise an expedient to destroy this remnant Dharma, the fourfold disciples, and the kings.' Māra then issued an order commanding his lion-generals to quickly lead the fourfold army to destroy this Dharma completely. He then conjured up a phantom army with four kinds of commanding generals, surrounding the great assembly and letting forth terrifying roars, seizing practitioners and laymen and laywomen, slaying kings, and smashing the place of practice. The assembled multitude was alarmed, and the four groups of disciples thought: 'Where does this come from?' The kings, hearing the noise, were all startled and doubtful, and each prepared their weapons. Ānanda contemplated who had come to harass them, and observing the army, he recognized it was Māra's doing. Ānanda then smiled and commanded the kings to halt their carriages: 'I myself will subdue these riotous troops.' At that time, Ānanda with the power of wisdom and Mahākāśyapa with the power of vigor stretched forth their hands and seized Māra, tying three corpses to his neck: the first a human corpse, the second a dog corpse, and the third a snake corpse. Bloated and foul, they were unbearable to be near. Māra then bowed down in submission and pleaded with Kāśyapa to release him: 'Should an arhat distress others? Kāśyapa! Previously, I harassed the Buddha, the World-Honoured One, to the utmost, yet was never distressed like this.' Kāśyapa answered: 'Out of compassion, the Buddha never harmed you. We are gathering the Dharma wishing to cause it to flourish long; why have you come to harass our assembly?' Māra then joined his palms and petitioned Ānanda: 'Just release me, and I will never harass people again.' Ānanda and Kāśyapa together swore an oath with him: 'If you harass the assembly again, the corpses will hang around your neck once more.' The three corpses vanished, Pāpīyas was spared, and he stood aside, while the devas praised it as supreme and wonderful. Kāśyapa commanded the assembly to listen quietly, and all the kings rose with joined palms to attend him. Ānanda gave a long sigh and a lion's roar, looked in all four directions at sentient beings, and having spoken 'Thus have I heard' and 'At one time', the earth shook, and one hundred million devas and humans all attained the Dharma-eye. They rehearsed the sūtras to form the first piṭaka, the vinaya as the second piṭaka, and the great Dharma (abhidharma) as the third piṭaka. Recording various distinct teachings and collecting miscellaneous matters, they further formed another piṭaka, named the Miscellaneous Canon (Kṣudraka-piṭaka). Having heard this Dharma, among the devas, spirits, and humans, three thousand bhikṣus attained the exhaustion of outflows, eight thousand became non-returners, ten thousand became once-returners, and countless devas and humans attained the path of seeing. When the rehearsal of the Dharma was completed, the devas and humans each returned, and the fourfold disciples all went back to their original places." Examining this rehearsal of the four piṭakas, this is the doctrine of the Mahāsāṃghika school, in which all four piṭakas were rehearsed by Ānanda. The Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra states: "Corpses were tied around the neck, and so on, until later under Upagupta." The Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra states: "Kāśyapa stroked Ānanda's crown with his hand, bidding him rehearse the Dharma-piṭaka. Ānanda joined his palms toward the direction of the Buddha's parinirvāṇa and recited a gāthā, saying: 'When the Buddha first preached the Dharma, / At that time I did not see it, / But heard it transmitted thus: / The Buddha, in Vārāṇasī, / For the assembly of five bhikṣus, / Turned the dharmacakra of the four truths.'" The Dharmacakrapravartana-sūtra also contains this gāthā. "Hearing these words, the one thousand arhats leaped into the air to the height of seven tāla trees, [saying]: 'Great is the power of impermanence! Just as with my own eyes I saw the Buddha himself preach the Dharma, today he merely says, "Thus have I heard."' The noble Aniruddha and Kāśyapa also recited gāthās speaking of the great power of impermanence. Ānanda thus rehearsed the four āgamas—namely the Ekottarika, Madhyama, Dīrgha, and Saṃyukta—calling them sūtras. He bade Upāli rehearse the Vinaya-piṭaka, saying: 'Thus have I heard: At one time the Buddha was in Vaiśālī…' and so forth extensively. He further bade Ānanda rehearse the Abhidharma-piṭaka, saying: 'Thus have I heard: At one time the Buddha was in Śrāvastī, and the Buddha addressed the bhikṣus: "There are five terrors, five sins, and five enmities that are not abandoned or extinguished. Due to these causes and conditions, one suffers immeasurable pain in this life and later falls into evil destinies…"' and so forth extensively. When the rehearsal of the Dharma was completed, the various devas, nāgas, and spirits made various offerings, raining down heavenly flowers and fragrances, making offerings of all manner of things. They recited this gāthā: 'Out of compassion for the world, / The rehearsal of the three Dharmas is completed. / The Ten-Powered One of omniscience / Expounded the lamp of wisdom that dispels ignorance.'" It also says: "Maitreya and Mañjuśrī took Ānanda to the Iron Ring Mountains (Cakravāḍa) to rehearse the Mahāyāna Tripiṭaka as the Bodhisattva-piṭaka." The Record of the Western Regions (Xiyu ji) states: "On the fifteenth day of the beginning of the summer retreat, Mahākāśyapa recited a gāthā saying: 'Well done, listen attentively! Ānanda has retained what he heard; praised by the Tathāgata, he shall compile the Sūtra-piṭaka. I, Kāśyapa, shall compile the Abhidharma-piṭaka. Upāli is thoroughly versed in the vinaya, recognized by the assembly; he shall compile the Vinaya-piṭaka.' When the three months of the rains were ended, the rehearsal of the Tripiṭaka was finished." According to traditions transmitted in the Western Regions, the Mahāyāna Tripiṭaka was also rehearsed in this same mountain together, that is, Ānanda, Mañjuśrī, and other great bodhisattvas rehearsed the Mahāyāna Tripiṭaka. Paramārtha's Commentary on the Sectarian Tenets (Buzhi shu) states: "Kāśyapa bade Ānanda recite the five āgamas, compiling them as the Sūtra-piṭaka. He bade Pūrṇa recite the abhidharma, named the Abhidharma-piṭaka. He bade Upāli recite the vinaya, named the Vinaya-piṭaka. At that time, immeasurable bhikṣus came wishing to hear the Dharma, but Kāśyapa did not permit it, commanding them to stay outside the boundary and each recite the Tripiṭaka according to the Dharma. There was an arhat who, mindful of the grace of the Buddha's Dharma and mindful of the suffering of sentient beings, constantly shed tears, and was therefore named Bāṣpa. He served as the leader of the great assembly, teaching all the people: First, because the karmavācanā had been completed, later arrivals were not permitted to enter the assembly, lest they disrupt the karmavācanā and incur a sthūlātyaya offense. Second, so as not to cause the assembly to be mixed; only the five hundred people together with Mahākāśyapa could mutually comprehend, while the others could not, hence they were not permitted to enter the assembly. Although there were two places each conducting a rehearsal, their views and doctrines had not yet diverged, and they still shared the same understanding of principle. When the summer was concluded, their Dharma affairs were likewise identical. King Ajātaśatru prepared robes and bowls to present to the noble assembly. Because the assembly outside the boundary was great in number, they were at that time called the Majority (Mahāsāṃghika). The assembly within the boundary had Kāśyapa as its leader; since the World-Honoured One had himself proclaimed Kāśyapa to be an elder (sthavira), and after the Buddha's passing he was the refuge for the disciples, they were at that time called the Elders (Sthavira). In the twelfth month of that year, Ajātaśatru died, Mahākāśyapa entered Gurupādaka Mountain, and the great assembly then dispersed." According to the Record of the Western Regions, he entered Kukkuṭapāda Mountain, not Gurupādaka. The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya says: "They rehearsed the Tripiṭaka in Rājagṛha, without specifying the place. Initially there were only five hundred great arhats; Ānanda rehearsed two piṭakas, and Upāli rehearsed the Vinaya-piṭaka. Later, Pūrṇa arrived with five hundred great arhats and requested Kāśyapa to repeat the rehearsal, and it was still Ānanda who rehearsed the two piṭakas." The initial assembly of five hundred is the same as the account of Master Paramārtha; its later becoming one thousand is the same as the Record of the Western Regions and the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra. The Account of the Rehearsal of the Canon states: "Because the Mahāsāṃghika doctrine utilizes the assembly outside the boundary, it does not divide the rehearsal into two places." The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya represents the doctrine of the Dharmaguptaka school, Master Paramārtha's account represents the doctrine of the Sarvāstivāda school, and the Record of the Western Regions presents the orthodox Mahāyāna teaching; it is unknown to which school the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra's account belongs. Since the places of assembly were distinct and the people involved were also different, the disparate traditions of the different schools cannot be reconciled; all scholars should understand this in accord with reason. This entirely constitutes the first [section], on the causes and conditions of the rehearsal.
2.6
Second, concerning the increase and decrease in number: the Sautrāntika masters establish only two piṭakas: first, the Sūtra-piṭaka; second, the Vinaya-piṭaka. The masters of that school state that the two piṭakas of sūtras and vinaya form distinct classes, whereas neither the Buddha nor his disciples had a distinct class [of texts] called the Abhidharma-piṭaka; rather, passages in the various sūtras that explain wisdom are termed abhidharma, and the treatises of the disciples and others merely annotate and comment on the sūtras, not being subsumed under a piṭaka, as stated in the first fascicle of the Nyāyānusāra. However, within the Mahāyāna, the teaching is also divided into two piṭakas based on the capacities and practices [of beings]: first, the Bodhisattva-piṭaka; second, the Śrāvaka-piṭaka. These are extensively established in the twenty-fifth, thirty-eighth, eighty-first, and eighty-fifth fascicles of the Yogācārabhūmi, the eleventh fascicle of the Abhidharmasamuccaya, the sixth and twentieth fascicles of the Xianyang shengjiao lun, and the first fascicle of Vasubandhu's Commentary on the Mahāyānasaṃgraha. Because the teaching, doctrine, practice, and fruit of the pratyekabuddhas are fewer than those of the śrāvakas, the piṭaka is named solely after the greater part as the Śrāvaka-piṭaka; that is, the two piṭakas are distinguished based on the incomplete and the complete [teachings]. Thus, because pratyekabuddhas only realize the emptiness of persons and only eliminate the grasping at a personal self, they are subsumed under the śrāvakas. Furthermore, because their initial generation of the mind [for bodhi] also relies on hearing the voice [of a Buddha] and they enter through that, they are also named śrāvakas, as stated in such texts as the Lotus Sūtra and the Nirvāṇa Sūtra. However, within the Mahāyāna as well as the Sarvāstivāda and other schools, it is commonly stated that there are three piṭakas: first, the sūtra; second, the vinaya; third, the abhidharma. The Sarvāstivāda position is as found in the Vibhāṣā; the Mahāyāna teaching is as cited above. The Lalitavistara and the Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodana-sūtra also state that there are three piṭakas: first, the bodhisattva; second, the pratyekabuddha; third, the śrāvaka. Because the capacities [of beings] differ, the teachings also differ; whereas previously they were subsumed under the śrāvakas because their practices and so forth were largely the same, here they are separately opened up because their capacities, fruits, and practices are slightly distinct. Alternatively, some speak of four piṭakas, such as the Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya and the Fenbie gongde jing, which, in agreement with the Mahāsāṃghika school, establish a Miscellaneous Piṭaka in addition to the three piṭakas of sūtras and so forth; that is, what solely explains samādhi is named sūtra, what solely explains discipline is named vinaya, what solely explains prajñā is named abhidharma, and what combines two explanations or combines three explanations is named the Miscellaneous Piṭaka. The Fenbie gongde jing extensively explains these four distinctions. The Record of the Compilation of the Piṭakas states: first, sūtras; second, vinaya; third, the Great Dharma; fourth, the Miscellaneous Piṭaka. After Kātyāyana composed it, he presented it to the Buddha; the Buddha declared it to be the supreme Dharma, hence it is named the Great Dharma. Within it, ignorance is broken and benefit is brought to the world; since this illuminates the various sūtras, it is called the Great Dharma. There are two further alternative explanations like this, which cannot be cited in detail. Past karmic causes spoken by the Buddha, and also spoken by arhats, gods, māras, and non-Buddhists, are therefore named the Miscellaneous Piṭaka. Therein are many verses questioning the twelve links of dependent origination; because these enter differently, it is named the Miscellaneous Piṭaka. Now observing the purport of the first explanation in this record, only past causes spoken by the Buddha, the World-Honoured One, himself are named sūtras, whereas those also spoken by arhats are named the Miscellaneous Piṭaka. According to the purport of the second explanation, if [a text] solely explains samādhi, it is named sūtra, whereas if it additionally explains prajñā and so forth, it is named the Miscellaneous Piṭaka. The questions on the twelve links of dependent origination are distinct entries because they explain prajñā. This present first interpretation corresponds to the second in that record. Furthermore, the Vātsīputrīya school also speaks of four piṭakas: first, sūtras; second, vinaya; third, abhidharma; fourth, dhāraṇī-mantras, because all the mantras are compiled within this piṭaka. Their five kinds of dharma-piṭakas—the past, present, and future, the unconditioned, the ineffable, and so forth—are the explained contents according to them, not the explaining texts spoken of here. The Dharmaguptaka school speaks of five piṭakas, adding the Bodhisattva-piṭaka to these four to explain the past practices of the bodhisattvas. The Tattvasiddhi-śāstra speaks of five piṭakas: having stated the three piṭakas, it further speaks of the Miscellaneous Piṭaka and the Bodhisattva-piṭaka. However, the Mahāyāna also speaks of six piṭakas; in the commentaries of Vasubandhu on the Yogācāryabhūmi, the Xianyang, the Abhidharmasamuccaya, and the Mahāyānasaṃgraha, it is stated that the bodhisattvas and śrāvakas each have three piṭakas. The Lotus Sūtra says, 'One should not associate with the three piṭakas of the Hīnayāna'; therefore, we know that the Mahāyāna also has three piṭakas, and thus they are divided into six. The teachings for pratyekabuddhas are few, and moreover they have no separate vinaya or the like; hence there are not three piṭakas that could be divided into nine. Conceptually, there could be seven: the Hīnayāna speaks of four and the Mahāyāna speaks of three, so conceptually seven are formed, but there is no specific textual passage [for this]. Furthermore, the Garbhāvakrānti-sūtra and the Mahāsāṃghika school also speak of eight piṭakas, because the bodhisattvas and śrāvakas each have four. Or one may speak of nine: since sūtras such as the Lalitavistara speak of three, and each of these comprises three, conceptually nine are established. Or they may be eighty-four thousand dharma-piṭakas. These increases and decreases are, in brief, seven different [groupings], namely two, three, four, five, six, seven, and eight. If spoken of separately as eighty-four thousand, expanding upon this, there are eighty million four hundred thousand, as extensively differentiated in the commentary on the Samayabhedoparacanacakra. All of this constitutes the second [section], on the increase and decrease in name and number.
2.7
Third, concerning the differentiation of elimination and establishment: the divergent explanations of the Hīnayāna are not what this school clarifies; within the Mahāyāna, only two piṭakas, two kinds of three piṭakas, six piṭakas, eighty-four thousand, and so forth are established. In his commentary on the Mahāyānasaṃgraha, Bodhisattva Vasubandhu states: 'Because these three piṭakas differ between the lower vehicle and the higher vehicle, they are divided into two piṭakas.' The intention of this statement is: solely because the teaching, doctrine, practice, and fruit of the pratyekabuddhas are fewer than those of the śrāvakas, they are subsumed into the lower vehicle and collectively named the Śrāvaka-piṭaka. Again, just as among faculties, although there is a medium faculty between superior and inferior faculties, when comparing superior and inferior there are only two grades, either superior or inferior, and a medium faculty is not spoken of. Here, by tentatively comparing superior and inferior, the teaching of the pratyekabuddhas enters the Śrāvaka-piṭaka; because their faculties are inferior, their karma is shallow, and what they abandon, cultivate, realize, and benefit are neither comprehensive nor vast, only two piṭakas are taught. When sūtras like the Lalitavistara establish the three piṭakas of bodhisattvas, pratyekabuddhas, and śrāvakas, it is in accordance with the differing capacities and the distinctions in vehicle and practice that three piṭakas are established without increase or decrease. Furthermore, regarding the establishment of the three piṭakas of sūtras and so forth without increase or decrease, Bodhisattva Vasubandhu has four explanations, the first three of which agree with the Abhidharmasamuccaya. The first meaning states: all faults are, in brief, of three kinds: first, doubt; second, practicing the two extremes; third, attachment to one's own views. The first is unwilling to cultivate; the second cultivates perversely; the third understands inauthentically. To counteract them, the three piṭakas are taught respectively. In the sūtras, the meanings are definitively taught for their sake, thereby causing them to enter [the path]. In the vinaya, the one hundred and one articles are permitted, thereby causing them to follow the middle path. In the treatises, the characteristics of all phenomena are illuminated, thereby causing them to generate true wisdom. These correspond to the grounds for not yet having entered, having entered, and attaining realization. Second, it is explained in terms of the initial abandonment of defilements and karma: these three are all abandoned on the path of seeing, because the cause of practicing the two extremes is the attachment to rules and rituals. Third, it is explained in terms of the defilements and karma that obstruct entry into the path: all afflictions are of only two classes: first, vacillation, with doubt being foremost; second, determination, with attachment to views being primary. Citing these two subsumes all afflictions. Although seeking to enter the path and practicing various excellent practices, one clings to the extremes of suffering and pleasure and cannot correctly realize [the truth]—that is, the extreme of indulging in sensual pleasure among householders, and the extreme of self-mortification among non-Buddhists. To eliminate these present defilements and karma, only three piṭakas are taught. Fourth, the categories of training do not exceed three kinds, namely discipline, concentration, and prajñā, each being superior; because the primary teachings on the three trainings are distinct from each other, there are only three piṭakas, neither increasing nor decreasing. Fifth, for those with bad conduct, those with much distraction, and those with many afflictions, the three are established in order: vinaya, sūtra, and abhidharma. Sixth, for those with much bad karma, much craving, and many views, the three are established in order. Seventh, for those with much anger, much greed, and much delusion, the three are established in order. Eighth, for those who fear the miserable realms, those who fear the desire realm, and those who fear the three realms, the three are established in order. Ninth, they are established for the attainment of the three aspects of the great parinirvāṇa: because from the treatises one attains prajñā, from the vinaya one attains liberation, and from the sūtras one attains the dharmakāya. Tenth, the three piṭakas are established to attain the two bodies: from the vinaya one attains the dharmakāya, because of nature-liberation; from the treatises one attains the reward body, because wisdom is its intrinsic nature; from the sūtras one attains the transformation body, because supernatural faculties are aroused relying on samādhi. Due to these distinctions, these three piṭakas neither increase nor decrease. By means of this same principle, dividing them into the lower and higher vehicles yields six piṭakas; there is no other principle. The eighty-four thousand neither increase nor decrease according to the afflictions counteracted; expanding upon this, eight hundred million dharma-piṭakas are further formed, as stated in the eleventh fascicle of the Abhidharmasamuccaya. However, what the Buddha taught in accordance with suitability is not fixed: or, relying on the gate of abandoning the heterodox and taking refuge in the orthodox, only one piṭaka is taught, namely the piṭaka of the orthodox Dharma teachings. In contrast to the gate of the piṭaka of signified meanings, only one piṭaka is taught, namely the piṭaka of syllables. Or two up to eighty-four thousand are taught, as the Nirvāṇa Sūtra says: 'The Buddha taught only one causal condition, namely all conditioned phenomena; or he taught up to twelve, because of what is suitable to be heard.' These piṭakas are likewise; their establishment accords with suitability and cannot be objected to. This is the third [section], differentiating elimination and establishment.
2.8
Fourth, concerning the presentation of the substantial nature: the intrinsic nature of the three piṭakas is not different in its conceptual category. In the general elucidation, four substantial natures have already been demonstrated; and just as in Dharmapāla's four kinds of substantial nature, their characteristics and functions are discussed separately. That is, they generally take the sounds, names, sentences, and phonemes—diverging into the conventional and the real—that are manifested on the mind of the teacher of the Dharma as their substantial nature; as appropriate, they are subsumed under the three natures, the five dharmas, and the aggregates, bases, and elements. The scriptural citations and rational arguments are extensive, as previously stated.
2.9
Fifth, concerning the explanation of names and meanings: this is divided into two: first, explaining the general name; second, explaining the specific names. Regarding the general name, Vasubandhu's treatise states: 'For what reason is it named a piṭaka (receptacle)? Because it can contain. That is, it contains all the meanings that ought to be known.' The intention of this meaning is: because the explaining teaching can contain all the meanings that ought to be known and prevent them from being lost, it is given the name piṭaka. Moreover, another explanation states: the meaning of containing and preserving is the meaning of piṭaka; all knowable dharmas are contained in this, and it preserves the contained dharmas so that they are not lost, hence it is called a piṭaka. These specific differences include two, three, and so on. 'Two', 'three', 'six', and so forth are numeral dharmas, which among the six types of compound analysis constitute dvigu compounds. Ancient masters explained: a piṭaka has the meaning of recording; the verbal teachings of the noble ones can definitively record all dharmas, hence it is named a piṭaka.
2.10
In explaining the specific names: first, within the two piṭakas, the first is the Bodhisattva-piṭaka and the second is the Śrāvaka-piṭaka. Regarding the term 'bodhisattva', in Sanskrit it should be *bodhisattva*; this [Chinese term] is abbreviated, hence it is simply called *pusa*. As Asvabhāva's commentary explains: 'Because *bodhisattva* takes [bodhi and sattva] as intentional objects (ālambana), one is called a bodhisattva; the designation *bodhisattva* is established on the basis of words of great aspiration.' The meaning intended here is that practitioners produce great vows, seeking great bodhi and delivering sentient beings (sattva). Establishing the name bodhisattva based on these two kinds of intentional objects is a bahuvrīhi compound, because one is called a bodhisattva by taking those two as intentional objects. Alternatively, it is a dvandva compound: both *bodhi* and *sattva*, because wisdom and compassion are distinct. Furthermore, he states: 'Or it means that that very mind, seeking bodhi, possesses resolution and capability; hence it is called a bodhisattva.' This means that bodhi is the fruit sought. *Sattva* means courageous and strong: because the practitioner's mind seeks unexcelled, complete enlightenment, it has great aspiration and capability; possessing these superior virtues, one is called a bodhisattva. This is a tatpuruṣa compound, because it is the sattva of seeking great bodhi. Or *sattva* means a sentient being—the sentient being that seeks great bodhi; its tatpuruṣa classification is as before. Although the text in the commentary on the *Yogācārabhūmi* differs slightly, its meaning is also identical to this. The *Eleven-Faced [Avalokiteśvara] Sūtra* states: 'Bodhi is prajñā; sattva means skillful means (upāya). These two dharmas benefit and bring peace and happiness to all sentient beings.' The sattva of bodhi is likewise a tatpuruṣa compound.
Regarding the term 'śrāvaka': 'voice' (śrava/śabda) means sound, that is, all the sounds of the Buddha preaching the Dharma; 'hearing' (śravaṇa) means listening to it. If practitioners hear the Buddha preach the Dharma, faithfully accept it, strive vigorously, and escape the three realms, they are called śrāvakas ('voice-hearers'). Therefore, the beginning of the second fascicle of the *Lotus Sūtra* states: 'If there are sentient beings who inwardly possess the nature of wisdom, hear the Dharma from the Buddha, the World-Honoured One, faithfully accept it, are diligent and vigorous, wishing swiftly to escape the three realms and seek nirvāṇa for themselves, this is called the Śrāvaka Vehicle.' This is based on the stage of newly entering the Śrāvaka Vehicle, because one mostly enters the path by relying on the teaching; later, when realizing the fruit, one does not necessarily have to rely entirely on the voice. The commentary on the *Yogācārabhūmi* states: 'In the sacred teachings of the Buddhas, voice is foremost. Hearing the voice of this teaching from teachers and friends, one cultivates and realizes step by step, forever escaping the mundane world; hence one is called a śrāvaka.' Taking voice as what is heard is also a bahuvrīhi compound. Furthermore, this explanation merely relies on abiding in one's own vehicle, establishing the name solely upon practices for one's own benefit. If [applied to those of] indeterminate nature, this principle is not so. Thus the end of the second fascicle of the *Lotus Sūtra* states: 'By causing all to hear the voice of the Buddha's path, they are called śrāvakas.' That is, based on turning one's mind toward abiding in the altruistic practices of the Buddha Vehicle, it is said that they cause others to hear through the voice, and are therefore called śrāvakas—which is a bahuvrīhi compound. If it means 'the hearing of the voice' and is therefore called śrāvaka, that is a tatpuruṣa compound. Since the pratyekabuddha, at the stage of newly entering their own vehicle, also mostly relies on the Buddha's voice, and also because the teaching is small, [both] are named after the majority as a piṭaka. Furthermore, because what they cultivate and realize and what they abandon are not extensive, they are collectively named śrāvakas. Adapting appropriately to these two capacities, all the dharmas and meanings known by these two are subsumed herein; thus they are named the piṭakas of bodhisattvas and śrāvakas. Both of these two piṭakas are tatpuruṣa compounds.
Among the specific names of the three piṭakas, regarding the three piṭakas first taught in the *Lalitavistara*, two names are as explained above. Regarding the Pratyekabuddha-piṭaka, the *Lotus Sūtra* states: 'If there are sentient beings who hear the Dharma from the Buddha, the World-Honoured One, faithfully accept it, are diligent and vigorous in seeking natural wisdom, delight in solitary tranquility, and deeply understand the causes and conditions of all phenomena, this is called the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle.' The *Yogācārabhūmi* states: 'Always delighting in quietude and not wishing to live among others, having perfected preparatory practice, without the instruction of teachers or friends, naturally and independently awakening, and forever escaping the mundane world, one is therefore called a pratyekabuddha.' The awakening of one who realizes alone is called a pratyekabuddha (solitary awakened one); this is a tatpuruṣa compound. Alternatively, awakening to the noble fruit by observing conditions, one is also called condition-awakened (pratyayabuddha). Awakening in dependence on conditions is also a tatpuruṣa compound. The piṭaka of the solitary awakened one is a tatpuruṣa compound.
Regarding the three piṭakas such as the sūtras as previously mentioned: the *Tattvasiddhi-śāstra* states: 'Sūtras are direct speech.' The *Miśrakābhidharma-hṛdaya-śāstra* states: 'A sūtra has five meanings: producing, gushing spring, displaying, plumb line, and garland.' Now, according to the Mahāyāna explanation, in Sanskrit it is *sūtra*, which is translated here as *qijing* (tallying scriptures). Thus fascicle twenty-five of the *Yogācārabhūmi* and fascicle six of the *Xianyang shengjiao lun* state: 'What is a sūtra? It briefly subsumes all tallying scriptures by means of twenty-four matters.' *Qi* (tallying) has the meaning of tallying with, reaching, and uniting. Regarding the term *jing* (scripture), Vasubandhu's treatise explains: 'It is called a sūtra because it threads through basis, characteristic, phenomenon, and meaning. That is, where, from what, and for what purpose something was spoken is called the basis. The characteristics of the ultimate and conventional truths are called characteristics. The ten skillful dharmas and so forth are called phenomena. Meaning refers to explaining all dharmas in accordance with hidden intention, etc.; this is called meaning.' It explains *sūtra* by means of these four meanings. Fascicle twenty-five of the *Yogācārabhūmi* and fascicle twenty of the *Xianyang shengjiao lun* say: 'It refers to the Buddha, the World-Honoured One, preaching immeasurable discourses associated with the aggregates in that place, for those sentient beings, and relying on the differences of activities of those to be transformed', and so on at length. Those who recited the Dharma gathered the sacred words so that the Dharma would endure long, and by means of exquisite words sequentially compiled them, threading and stitching together true, excellent, and wondrous meanings capable of leading to benefit and capable of practicing the noble life; this is called a tallying scripture. Although *sūtra* has been explained above through the meaning of threading through—threading meaning by means of teaching, and gathering sentient beings by means of teaching, it is called a scripture (*jing*), just as a thread threads through flowers, or as the warp (*jing*) holds the weft. In the Western Regions, drawing ropes, sewing threads, mats, warp, and sacred teachings are all called *sūtra*. Sentient beings are gathered by the teaching and do not disperse into evil destinies; principles and meanings are threaded by the teaching and are not scattered, lost, or obscured. Therefore, the sacred teachings are called *qijing*. The *Dharmaguptaka-vinaya* states: 'Just as various flowers scattered upon a table are blown and fall away by the wind because there is no thread to string them together. Prior to the twelfth year, the capacities of those who could receive the abbreviated teaching were like the table. The various divergent views of monastics and laypeople cause the correct Dharma to perish as swiftly as the wind. All meanings of the scriptures are called flowers. If there are scriptural teachings threading through the correct principles, people will have no divergent views, and the Dharma will not perish.' Therefore, the first fascicle of the *Buddhabhūmi-sūtra-śāstra* states: 'Because it can thread through and can gather, it is called a scripture. Because the Buddha's sacred teaching threads through and holds together the meanings to be spoken and the beings to be transformed, it is designated a scripture.' A scripture that tallies with principle is called a tallying scripture (*qijing*), which is a tatpuruṣa compound. If it is merely called scripture (*jing*), it is not this compound. However, the substance of the sūtra is itself the piṭaka. Calling it the Sūtra-piṭaka is a karmadhāraya compound, because both scripture and piṭaka pertain to the teaching.
*Vinaya* is translated here as 'taming and subduing' (tiaofu). Fascicle eighty-five states: 'Regarding the realms constituted by the four kinds of sentient beings through repeatedly habituating false views of liberation, the Buddha, by means of the power of knowledge of various inclinations and the power of knowledge of realms, investigates their previous inclinations and their subsequent realms, in order to tame and subdue them appropriately. Because it mostly sets in motion four kinds of Dharma teachings, it is called Vinaya; therefore, Vinaya is called taming and subduing.' Vasubandhu explains: 'Because of committing offenses, because of arising, because of purification, and because of egress, it is called Vinaya.' This is explained at length in the first fascicle of the *Mahāyānasaṃgraha*. 'Taming' means harmonizing and regulating; 'subduing' means restraining and eliminating, because it harmonizes and regulates bodily and verbal actions, and restrains and eliminates all evil deeds. Being both taming and subduing, it is a karmadhāraya compound. This is the name of practice. The piṭaka of taming and subduing is called the Vinaya-piṭaka. Because the piṭaka is the teaching, this is also a tatpuruṣa compound.
*Abhidharma*: *dharma* means phenomenon/law (fa); *abhi* has four meanings, translated here as 'facing the Dharma' (duifa), and also called 'enumerating the Dharma' (shufa), 'subduing by the Dharma' (fufa), and 'penetrating the Dharma' (tongfa). Vasubandhu explains: 'Regarding the meaning of facing (abhi), this dharma faces toward non-abiding nirvāṇa and can explain various wondrous practices such as the truths and the factors of bodhi.' If based on this explanation, that which can face is called 'facing', its substance being the teaching itself; because it can explain wondrous practices and faces toward nirvāṇa, facing is itself the dharma, and is called Abhidharma. Abhidharma is itself the piṭaka, named Abhidharma-piṭaka; both are karmadhāraya compounds. It is also called 'enumerating the Dharma' because it repeatedly expounds each and every dharma, glossing words, own-characteristics, and so forth. This takes principle as dharma and teaching as enumeration; being the enumeration of dharmas, it is called 'enumerating the Dharma', which is a tatpuruṣa compound. 'Enumerating the Dharma' is itself the piṭaka, named the Piṭaka of Enumerating the Dharma, which is a karmadhāraya compound. It is also called 'subduing by the Dharma' because, being fully equipped with the topics of debate and so forth, it can conquer and subdue others' heterodox debates. The substance of subduing is principle; the dharma that expounds subduing is called 'subduing by the Dharma', which is a tatpuruṣa compound. Alternatively, the teaching of the Dharma is itself subduing, because this teaching of the Dharma is equipped with debate grounds and so forth and can conquer and subdue others' heterodox debates; this is a karmadhāraya compound. 'Subduing by the Dharma' is itself the piṭaka, which is also a karmadhāraya compound. It is also called 'penetrating the Dharma' because it can interpret and penetrate the meaning of the sūtras. The meaning of the sūtras is termed dharma; this [treatise] can penetrate that, so it is called 'penetrating the Dharma'. Being the penetration of dharma, it is a tatpuruṣa compound. 'Penetrating the Dharma' is itself the piṭaka, which is also a karmadhāraya compound. There are further distinct explanations, as found in the *Commentary on the Abhidharmasamuccaya*. The *Fenbie gongde jing* contains two explanations: first, it is called the 'peerless Dharma'; second, it is called the 'great Dharma'. In the accounts of the council, it is also called the 'great Dharma'. Asvabhāva explains: 'Because it is the cause of distinguishing dharmas, or because it is mutually understood.' The *Miśrakābhidharma-hṛdaya-śāstra* has two explanations. The first fascicle of the *Vibhāṣā* records twelve great masters giving twenty-four alternative explanations. The *Nyāyānusāra* states: 'Or the various sūtras are called dharma, and the treatises are capable of definitively discerning them, so they are called Abhidharma.' This matches teaching against teaching. The *Abhidharmakośa* has two explanations. Alternatively, teaching, principle, practice, and fruit are all named Abhidharma, and their names and meanings are explained accordingly, making a total of forty-one explanations, as in the commentary on the *Abhidharmasamuccaya*, which cannot be detailed here. This piṭaka is also called *upadeśa*, which is the ancient *youpotishe*, translated here as 'discussion/treatise' (lunyi). It is also called *mātṛkā*, which is the formerly called *modeleguojang*, translated here as 'matrix/source-mother' (benmu). Fascicle eighty-one and others state: 'This very upadeśa is also called mātṛkā, and is also called Abhidharma.' Fascicle eighty-five states: 'In order to definitively discern the sūtras of former sages spoken, declared, and praised by the Tathāgata. Just as without a matrix (mātṛkā), the meanings of characters are not clear; similarly, sūtras not subsumed by this matrix have hidden meanings that are not clear. Contrary to this, their meanings are clear; therefore it is called mātṛkā.' Here, *mātṛkā* pertains to meaning, while the piṭaka is the teaching. The piṭaka of the matrix is also a tatpuruṣa compound. If this doctrinal treatise serves as the mother of those meanings, it is called the matrix. The matrix is itself the piṭaka, which is a karmadhāraya compound. The names and meanings of the six piṭakas do not differ from the two and three, so they are not explained separately. What has been explained above merely follows one perspective; wise persons may accept or reject as they see fit. This concludes the fifth section, Explaining the Names and Meanings.
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- 大乘法苑義林章 — Classical Chinese