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Language: English
Extent: 85 passages, 14,222 words
Text: complete digital text
Source: pramana-mt · Machine translation by Gemini 3.8 Flash (2026-10-21) of in.bauddha.taisho.1931 · Machine output without human authorship: no copyright is claimed (CC0 1.0). The original text keeps its own…

1 — 85 parts

Text

The seven worthies in seven ranks are the initial capacities of the Tripiṭaka [teaching], / Equalling ranks one and two in the shared teaching; / The distinct [teaching's ten] faiths together with the ranks of the five preliminary grades of the perfect [teaching] / Initially subdue [the delusions of] views and thought while dwelling as ordinary beings. / The fruit rank of the srotāpanna enters the stream of sages, / Forming a peer with the third and fourth grounds of the shared [teaching], / And linking with the distinct [teaching's] abodes and the perfect [teaching's] initial faith, / Whereupon the eighty-eight proclivities are just now extinguished. / From the second through the seventh faiths and abodes of the perfect and distinct [teachings], / The ultimate fruits of the Tripiṭaka and shared [teachings] are both of identical grade; / Together they eliminate the four entrenchments and realize biased truth, / As the dust and sand [delusions] within and beyond [the realms] are distinctively severed or subdued. / From the eighth through the tenth faiths, the two delusions are emptied, / The provisional is established and the conventional is complete, so that principle is just now penetrated; / These equal the latter three ranks of the preceding distinct [teaching's] abodes, / And link with the ranks of [ten] practices and [ten] dedications as identical. / The distinct [teaching's ten] grounds entirely equal the perfect [teaching's ten] abodes, / Severing ignorance in portions to realize the cause of truth; / Virtual and sublime enlightenment are its initial and second practices; / Advanced hearing beyond these three ranks knows no name.

1.3

Origins of the Outline of the Fourfold Teachings

1.4

The Tonghui lu by Zanning, Chief of Monks who compiled the Buddhist biographies under the Song, states: In the late Tang, King Qian Zhongyi of Wuyue, in his leisure from governing the state, investigated the Buddhist scriptures. Reading the Yongjia ji, he encountered the lines: "Together eliminating the four entrenchments, here they are equal; yet if subduing ignorance, the Tripiṭaka [teaching] is inferior." Not understanding this, he inquired of National Preceptor Shao of Xueju. [Shao] replied that Master Ji of Guoqing Monastery on Mount Tiantai was skilled in propagating the doctrinal teachings and would certainly explain these words. The King summoned the Dharma Master and questioned him. The Dharma Master said: "These are words from Great Master Zhizhe of Tiantai's Miaoxuan. Having suffered the devastation of the An Lushan rebellion, and recently the incineration during the Huichang era, the doctrinal canon of the central lands has been almost completely destroyed and lost. Now only in Goryeo across the Eastern Sea does the propagation of the teachings flourish, and the complete texts remain there." Hearing this with deep sighing, the King immediately dispatched state letters and valuable gifts, sending an envoy to Goryeo to request the commentaries and subcommentaries of our tradition. The monarch of Goryeo then commanded a monk named Chegwan to return the diplomatic mission with the corpus of Tiantai teachings to us. After arriving, Chegwan went to Luoxi and received instruction from Master Ji; through this the Great Teaching at last flourished once again.

1.5

Chegwan was able to explore the major texts and excerpt the Outline of the Fourfold Teachings in two fascicles. The upper fascicle clarifies our tradition's doctrinal classification and established meanings, while the lower fascicle clarifies the divergent views and lineages of the various masters of the north and south. Later, when Master Yuan of Gushan collated and printed it on printing blocks, he circulated only the text of the present upper fascicle. This was because its phrases were concise and essential, its doctrine easily understood, and students relying on it could indeed comprehend the grand outline of [the Buddha's] entire era of conversion; how could it be called a minor aid? As for the lower fascicle, it refutes the ancient masters of the north and south, and its text and meanings are vast and diffuse; hence it was deferred. In the text at the very end of this [work], it indicates: "From this point onward, the doctrinal classification systems of the various masters are briefly explained;" this allows one to see the general outline of the latter fascicle. For Master Ji, the King built a monastery above Luoxi named Dinghui Cloister, promoted his title to Great Master Jingguang, posthumously designated him the Ninth Patriarch, and entrusted entirely to the master the doctrinal canon returned from the east; the revival of our doctrinal tradition was indeed based upon this. Furthermore, Venerable Shao happened to share the same surname as Zhizhe, aided and supported the sectarian vehicle, and lived adjacent to Folong; people all suspected that he was a reincarnation of Zhizhe.

1.6

The Jiaoyuan yishi by Dharma Master Daoyin of Caocan in Siming states: In antiquity, Dhyāna Master Zhizhe founded a life-release pond on the sea coast. Whenever he released creatures, he would unfailingly confer the refuges and precepts upon them, preach the Great Dharma, and only then release them into the sea. After Zhizhe passed away, up to the end of the Tang, the Way of Tiantai in the central lands gradually diminished, whereas in the kingdoms of Goryeo and Silla across the Eastern Sea, this teaching was vigorously propagated. Dharma Master Jizhong of Fuzong said: "Zhizhe's karmic conditions were in this land, yet the teaching was unfurled across the Eastern Sea; this was surely because the fishes in the life-release pond, having heard the teaching and received the precepts, were reborn there." Those who heard this explanation largely ridiculed it as absurd, not knowing that it has proof in doctrinal principles: when the ten thousand sons of heaven in the Jalavāhana [parable] shed their retribution as fish, could it have been anything other than this?

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Collated and carved by the śramaṇa Zhijue at Jingye Hall in the winter of the ninth year of the Wanli era of the Ming.

1.8

Preface to the Carving of the Outline of Tiantai's Fourfold Teachings

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Last year, when my humble garden was completed, I named its hall Jingye (Pure Karma), during the remaining days of my illness. Thereupon, together with three or four companions in pure practice, I closed the gates to spend the summer retreat therein, offering services and recitations during the three periods of the day, seeking rebirth in the Western Pure Land. Sitting in tranquility and burning incense, we investigated the scriptures of the canon. The bells and stone chimes sounded at intervals; the white clouds briefly lingered. Birds flew low, drawing close to humans; grasses grew luxuriantly, obscuring the paths. Forgetting the towering palace gates, resting worldly stratagems like the man of Hanyin, my mind was exceedingly joyful and at ease. A monk named Zhenjue came from Wulin and introduced me to the teachings of Tiantai. I nodded in assent, detained him for ten days, and had him analyze the great essentials of teaching and contemplation. Experiencing what seemed like an awakening, I joined my palms before the Buddha and vowed to uphold and propagate the Tiantai tradition life after life, purifying the Buddha lands. My companions in pure practice aroused this aspiration at the same time, becoming perpetual hosts and companions. The origins and lineage of the Tiantai teaching are fully detailed in the Fozu tongji compiled by Venerable Pan of Siming, while the Outline of the Fourfold Teachings was excerpted by the Goryeo śramaṇa Chegwan based upon the Fahua xuanyi. The book consists of two fascicles in total: the upper fascicle clarifies the meaning of our tradition's doctrinal classification, and the lower fascicle clarifies the divergent views and lineages of the various masters of the north and south. What is transmitted today is only the upper fascicle; its words are concise and its meaning comprehensive, serving truly as the key to the Tiantai teaching. If students understand this, more than half of the grand outline of [the Buddha's] entire era of conversion is grasped. The śramaṇa Mengrun of South India [Monastery] compiled a commentary in three fascicles (Jizhu), which is also precise, reliable, and delightful; recently a printed edition appeared in Wu. Having been in retreat for two full months, once I emerged, I again fell into the snare of the world, unable to maintain the pure precepts, consuming wine and meat and consorting with wife and children as of old. Suppose a traveler went astray in a foreign land in his youth; one day, someone tells him: "Your home is in such-and-such a place; your father, brothers, clan, ancestral graves, fields, and houses are all to be remembered." Even if that man remains detained and cannot return immediately, could he simply become a man of that foreign land? This spring, with this single life of mine, I am to abandon the green hills, and the day of my departure is near. Recalling my former aspiration, I contributed funds to carve one fascicle of the Outline of the Fourfold Teachings together with its topical outline to circulate in the world. May those of like mind hold this key to unlock the barrier and plumb the ocean of the canon, so that the teachings and contemplations of our tradition will shine like the sun at midday and flow like streams rushing into the valleys; then my detention in a foreign land may also serve as an occasion for repentance. Strive on! Strive on!

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Composed on the Buddha's Day of Joy in the spring of the renwu year by the ailing lay practitioner Feng Mengzhen.

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Recorded by the Goryeo śramaṇa Chegwan

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Great Master Zhizhe of Tiantai classified and interpreted the holy teachings of [the Buddha's] entire lifetime that flowed eastward by means of the five periods and eight teachings, exhausting them without remainder. The five periods are: first, the Avataṃsaka period; second, the Mṛgadāva period (in which the four Āgamas were spoken); third, the Vaipulya period (in which the Vimalakīrti, Viśeṣacintibrahma-paripṛcchā, Laṅkāvatāra, Śūraṅgama-samādhi, Suvarṇaprabhāsa, Śrīmālādevī, and other sūtras were spoken); fourth, the Prajñā period (in which the Mahāprajñā, Guangzan banruo, Vajracchedikā, Dapin banruo, and other various Prajñā sūtras were spoken); fifth, the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-Nirvāṇa period. These are the five periods, also called the five flavors. The eight teachings are: sudden, gradual, secret, and indeterminate, [along with] the Tripiṭaka, shared, distinct, and perfect [teachings]; these are called the eight teachings. The four teachings of sudden and the rest are the conversion methods, like worldly medicinal prescriptions; the four teachings of the Tripiṭaka and the rest are called the conversion doctrines, like discerning medicinal flavors. Such models are scattered throughout the extensive texts; now, relying on the major texts, I briefly record the outline: first discerning the five periods and five flavors as well as the four teachings of conversion method, and thereafter presenting the Tripiṭaka, shared, distinct, and perfect [teachings].

1.13

First, the sudden teaching is the Avataṃsaka Sūtra. In terms of text, period, flavor, and so forth, it obtains the name 'sudden'. That is to say, when the Tathāgata first attained correct enlightenment in the bodhimanda of quiescent extinction, the forty-one ranks of Great Beings of the Dharma Body and the eight classes of devas and nāgas whose faculties were ripe from past lives surrounded him all at once, like clouds encircling the moon. At that time, the Tathāgata manifested the Rocana body and preached the complete sūtra; therefore it is called the sudden teaching. If considered in terms of capacity and teaching, it cannot avoid combining the provisional. That is, passages such as 'at the initial arousing of the aspiration, one immediately attains correct enlightenment' preach the perfect teaching for capacities [suited to] the perfect. Where it repeatedly preaches sequential arrangement and stages, it preaches the distinct teaching for capacities [suited to] the provisional. Therefore, in terms of text it is sudden, and in terms of teaching it is called combined. This sūtra states: 'It is like the rising sun first illuminating the high mountains' (the first period). The Nirvāṇa [Sūtra] states: 'Just as from a cow comes milk, here from the Buddha come the twelve divisions of scripture' (the first, the milk flavor). The 'Belief and Understanding' chapter of the Lotus [Sūtra] states: 'He immediately dispatched bystanders to pursue him quickly and bring him back; the poor son was alarmed and terrified, crying out in grievance,' and so forth. What meaning does this convey? The answer is: it refers to the śrāvakas in the assembly being as if deaf and mute, and so forth.

1.14

Second, the gradual teaching (the following three periods and three flavors are collectively called gradual): Next, because those of three-vehicle dispositions gained no benefit from the sudden, [the Buddha], without moving from the bodhimaṇḍa of quiescence, traveled to Mṛgadāva, cast off the precious imperial robes of Rocana, and donned the sixteen-foot-tall tattered and soiled garments, displaying his descent from Tuṣita and entering Māyā's womb. Staying in the womb, emerging from the womb, taking a consort, fathering a son, and leaving home to practice austerities: after six years, beneath the wooden Bodhi tree, using grass as his seat, he perfected the inferior response body. Initially in Mṛgadāva, he first preached for the five men the teachings of the four truths, twelve links of dependent origination, phenomenal six perfections, and so forth. In terms of period, it is the sun illuminating the dark valleys (the second period); in terms of flavor, from milk comes curdled milk—here, from the twelve divisions of scripture come the nine divisions of sūtras (the second, the curdled milk flavor). The 'Belief and Understanding' chapter states: 'And by expedient means he secretly dispatched two men (śrāvaka and pratyekabuddha) whose forms were haggard and devoid of majesty: "You may go there and gently speak to the poor son, hiring you to clear away dung."' What meaning does this convey? The answer is: following the sudden, he preached the Tripiṭaka teaching, constantly having him clear away dung for twenty years, which means shattering the afflictions of views and thought and so on.

1.15

Next, to clarify the Vaipulya division: In sūtras such as the Vimalakīrti, he censured the biased and reproved the small, while praising the great and extolling the perfect. All four teachings were preached together: the Tripiṭaka is the half-letter teaching, while the shared, distinct, and perfect are the full-letter teachings. Because the full is preached in contrast to the half, it is called the contrasting teaching. In terms of period, it is the mealtime (the third period); in terms of flavor, from curdled milk comes raw butter—here, from the nine divisions comes Vaipulya (the third, the raw butter flavor). The 'Belief and Understanding' chapter states: 'After this had passed, their minds gained mutual trust and understanding; entering and exiting without difficulty, yet his dwelling was still in the original place.' What meaning does this convey? The answer is: after the Tripiṭaka, he next preached Vaipulya; having already attained the fruits of the path, their minds gained mutual trust and understanding, so that hearing reproaches they felt no anger. Harboring shame within, their minds gradually grew mellow and refined.

1.16

Next, he preached Prajñā: rotating the teaching, entrusting the wealth, integration, and weeding out. In this Prajñā, he did not preach the Tripiṭaka teaching; carrying along the shared and distinct, he primarily preached the perfect teaching. In terms of period, it is mid-morning (the fourth period); in terms of flavor, from raw butter comes clarified butter—here, following Vaipulya comes the Mahāprajñā (the fourth, the clarified butter flavor). The 'Belief and Understanding' chapter states: 'At that time the elder was ill, and knowing he would die before long, he addressed the poor son, saying: "I now possess abundant gold, silver, and precious gems; the storehouses are brimming over. You are to know the quantities of what should be taken and given."' What meaning does this convey? The answer is: this clarifies that after Vaipulya, he next preached Prajñā; the contemplative wisdom of Prajñā is precisely the family estate. Subhūti and Śāriputra receiving the command to rotate the teaching is precisely their taking charge and understanding, and so forth.

1.17

The above three flavors, in contrast to the sudden teaching of the Avataṃsaka, are collectively named gradual.

1.18

Third, the secret teaching: as in the preceding four periods, because the Tathāgata's three wheels are inconceivable, he would preach the sudden for this person or preach the gradual for that person, while they remained mutually unaware of each other, yet were enabled to obtain benefit; therefore it is called the secret teaching.

1.19

Fourth, as for the indeterminate teaching: this is also due to the Buddha, within the previous four flavors, expounding the Dharma with a single voice, while sentient beings each attained understanding according to their kind. This is the Tathāgata's inconceivable power, which can enable sentient beings to attain the benefit of the sudden amidst a gradual teaching, and to attain the benefit of the gradual amidst a sudden teaching. Because their attainment of benefit differed in this way, it is called the indeterminate teaching. However, as for the two teachings of the secret and the indeterminate, the doctrine under their teachings consists merely of the Tripitaka, shared, distinct, and perfect [teachings]. The four teachings of conversion method end here.

1.20

Next, the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka was expounded. It opened the previous sudden and gradual [teachings] and united them into what is neither sudden nor gradual; hence it is called 'opening the provisional and revealing the real,' and is also called 'discarding the provisional and establishing the real,' as well as 'uniting the three and returning to the one.' Regarding the provisional and the real, the terms apply to both the present and the past, but the doctrinal sense differs. That is to say, prior to the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, the provisional and the real were not identical, and the great and the small were separated from each other. For instance, in the Avataṃsaka period, the one provisional and the one real (the distinct provisional and the perfect real) were not identical to each other, because the great did not encompass the small. Although the small were present in the assembly, they were like the deaf and the mute; therefore, although the Dharma doors expounded were vast and complete, they did not exhaustively gather the capacities, and did not fully convey the Tathāgata's original intent in appearing in the world. Why is this? The initial sudden division had one coarse (the distinct teaching) and one subtle (the perfect teaching). The one subtle was no different from the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka; but if it was the one coarse, it had to await the opening, uniting, and discarding of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka before it could be designated as subtle. Next, the Mṛgadāva [period] was only coarse without the subtle (the Tripitaka teaching). Next, the Vaipulya [period] had three coarse (the Tripitaka, shared, and distinct) and one subtle (the perfect teaching). Next, the Prajñā [period] had two coarse (the shared and distinct) and one subtle (the perfect teaching). Coming to the assembly of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, it totally opened, united, and discarded the coarseness of the previous four flavors, causing them to become the subtlety of the One Vehicle. The perfect teachings of the various flavors did not need to be opened further; they were originally round and harmonious, and did not await opening. However, within their divisions they were combined with, exclusive to, set against, or carried along [with other teachings]; hence they did not measure up to the unadulterated purity of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, which alone received the name 'subtle,' truly with good reason. Therefore the text says: 'In the Buddha lands of the ten directions, there is only the Dharma of the One Vehicle; there is neither a second nor a third' (oneness of teaching). 'Directly discarding expedients, I preach only the unsurpassed Path' (oneness of practice). 'Only for the sake of bodhisattvas, not for the small vehicle' (oneness of persons). 'The worldly aspects are eternally abiding' (oneness of principle). The people of the time had not grasped the subtle purport of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, and seeing only that within its division there were parables such as the three carts, the impoverished son, and the conjured city, they said that it was inferior to other sutras. This was because they did not know that it reiterated the provisionals of the previous four periods solely to reveal the great cart, solely to bestow the family estate, and solely to reach the place of jewels; thus they incurred the fault of slander. In terms of time, it is the sun at midday, with utterly no side shadow (the fifth period); in terms of flavor, it is the emergence of ghee from clarified butter. This is the emergence of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka from the Mahāprajñā (the fifth flavor of ghee). The 'Chapter on Faith and Understanding' says: 'He gathered his relatives and directly declared to them: "This is truly my son, and I am truly his father. Everything I now possess belongs to my son." He bestowed upon him the family estate, and the impoverished son rejoiced, having attained what he had never had before.' What meaning does this grasp? Answer: directly following the Prajñā, the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka was expounded. Having already been made to oversee and know all the items in the storehouses, when the time of death arrived, [the father] simply bestowed the family estate directly, nothing more. This is an analogy: the previous turning over of the teaching made them know all the Dharma doors; when expounding the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, [the Buddha] simply opened, displayed, awakened them to, and caused them to enter the knowledge and vision of a Buddha, and conferred prophecies of attaining buddhahood, nothing more.

1.21

Next, as for the expounding of the Mahānirvāṇa, it has two meanings. First, for those who were not yet ripe, it expounded the four teachings again, fully discussing the Buddha-nature and causing them to be equipped with true permanence and enter the great nirvāṇa; hence it is named the teaching of gleaning. Second, for those of dull faculties in the final age who develop nihilistic views regarding the Buddhadharma, thereby cutting short their wisdom-life and losing their Dharma-body, it set forth the three provisionals and supported the one perfect real; hence it is named the teaching of supporting the vinaya and discussing permanence. However, in terms of period and flavor, it is identical with the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka. In terms of its division, its purity and mixture differ slightly. Therefore the text says: 'From the Mahāprajñā emerges the Mahānirvāṇa.' The preceding Saddharmapuṇḍarīka combined with this sutra constitute the fifth period.

1.22

Question: This sutra possesses the four teachings; is this identical to or different from the previous Vaipulya division fully expounding the four teachings? Answer: The names are identical, but the meaning is different. Among the four in the Vaipulya, in the perfect [teaching] they know permanence both at first and later; in the distinct, they do not know at first and only know later; in the Tripitaka and shared, they do not know either at first or later. In the four of the Nirvāṇa, they know both at first and later.

1.23

Question: Regarding matching the five flavors to the teachings of the five periods, what is the meaning? Answer: There are two. First, simply taking the sequence of generation: the cow is an analogy for the Buddha, and the five flavors are analogies for the teachings. Milk comes from the cow, curd is generated from milk, and the two butters and ghee follow a sequence without confusion; thus they are an analogy for the sequential generation of the five periods. Second, taking their richness and thickness: this takes one group of the lowest capacities, namely the capacities of the two vehicles. In the Avataṃsaka assembly they did not believe and did not understand, and did not alter their ordinary feelings; hence this is compared to milk. Next, arriving at the Mṛgadāva, they heard the Tripitaka teaching; the capacities of the two vehicles cultivated practice in accordance with the teaching and transformed ordinary beings into sages; hence this is compared to transforming milk into curd. Next, arriving at the Vaipulya, they heard the reprimands of the śrāvakas, yearned for the great and felt ashamed of the small, and attained the benefit of the shared teaching; this is like transforming curd into raw butter. Next, arriving at the Prajñā, they received the command to turn over the teaching, their minds gradually broadened, and they attained the benefit of the distinct teaching; this is like transforming raw butter into clarified butter. Next, arriving at the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, they heard the three rounds of preaching the Dharma and received prophecies of attaining buddhahood; this is like transforming clarified butter into ghee. This concerns the dullest capacities who fully undergo the five flavors. Those below them might undergo one, two, three, or four [flavors]. Those of superior capacities attained entry into the true reality of the Dharma realm at every single flavor; why would they need to await the opening and uniting of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka?

1.24

The above has recorded the five flavors, five periods, and four teachings of conversion method; such is the broad outline. From here below, the four teachings of conversion doctrine are explained.

1.25

First, as for the Tripitaka teaching: first, the Sūtra Piṭaka (sutras such as the Four Āgamas); second, the Abhidharma Piṭaka (treatises such as the Kośa and the Vibhāṣā); third, the Vinaya Piṭaka (the vinayas of the five divisions). The name 'three piṭakas' applies to both the Mahāyāna and the Hīnayāna; here it takes the Hīnayāna three piṭakas. The Da zhidu lun says: 'Kātyāyanīputra, relying on his own intelligence and sharp faculties, explained the meaning of the three piṭakas in the Vibhāṣā, but did not read the Vaipulya sutras and was not a great bodhisattva.' Furthermore, the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka says: 'Greedily attached to small vehicle three-piṭaka scholars.' Relying on such texts, the Great Master called the small vehicle the Tripitaka teaching. This has the capacities of the three vehicles:

1.26

First, people of the śrāvaka [vehicle] rely on the teaching of the four truths of arising and ceasing. Regarding the four truths: first, the truth of suffering, which consists of the two retributions of circumstance and person in the twenty-five states of existence. As for the twenty-five states of existence: the four continents, the four evil destinies, the six [heavens of] desire, together with the Brahmā heaven, the four dhyānas, the four formless realms, non-conception, and the five anāgāmin [heavens] (the four continents and four destinies make eight; the six desire heavens together with the Brahmā King heaven make fifteen; the four dhyānas and four formless realms make twenty-three; the heaven of non-conception and the anāgāmin heavens make twenty-five). Specifically, there are the twenty-five states of existence; generally, there is the birth and death of the six destinies. First, the hell destiny, in Sanskrit naraka, also niraya, translated here as 'instruments of suffering.' As for calling it 'earth-prison' (hell), because this place is beneath the earth, it is called hell. This refers to the eight cold, eight hot, and other great hells, each having its retinues, their types being countless. Those who undergo suffering within them have lighter or heavier suffering according to their karma, lasting for a number of kalpas and so forth. In the heaviest place, within a single day there are eighty-four thousand births and deaths, lasting for immeasurable kalpas. Those who commit the upper grade of the five heinous crimes and ten unwholesome deeds incur bodies in this destiny. Second, the animal destiny, also called sideways-born. This destiny is ubiquitous in all places: bearing fur and carrying horns, scales, carapaces, feathers, and plumage; four-footed and many-footed, footed and footless; moving through water, land, and air; devouring one another and undergoing endless suffering. Those who, through ignorance and covetous desire, commit the middle grade of the five heinous crimes and ten unwholesome deeds incur bodies in this destiny. Third, the hungry ghost destiny, in Sanskrit preta. This destiny is also ubiquitous across all destinies: those with merit and virtue become spirits of mountains, forests, tombs, and temples; those without merit and virtue dwell in impure places, cannot obtain food and drink, are constantly flogged, fill rivers and block seas, and undergo immeasurable suffering. Those who with flattering and deceitful minds commit the lower grade of the five heinous crimes and ten unwholesome deeds incur bodies in this destiny. Fourth, the asura destiny, translated here as 'without wine,' also 'not handsome,' and 'non-god.' Some are on the seacoast or sea bottom, their palaces adorned, constantly fond of fighting, terrified without limit. When in the causal stage they harbored suspicion and jealousy; although they practiced the five constants, they wished to surpass others. Committing the lower grade of the ten wholesome deeds, they incur bodies in this destiny. Fifth, the human destiny: the four continents differ, namely Pūrvavideha (lifespan of two hundred and fifty years), Jambudvīpa (lifespan of one hundred years), Aparagodānīya (lifespan of five hundred years), and Uttarakuru (lifespan of one thousand years, where life is without premature death, and no sages appear among them, which is one of the eight difficulties). In all of them, suffering and pleasure are mingled. When in the causal stage they practiced the five constants and five precepts—the five constants being benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness; the five precepts being not killing, not stealing, not engaging in sexual misconduct, not lying, and not drinking alcohol—and practiced the middle grade of the ten wholesome deeds, they incur bodies in this destiny. Sixth, the heavenly destiny: the twenty-eight heavens differ (six heavens of the desire realm, eighteen heavens of the form realm, and four heavens of the formless realm). First, as for the six heavens of the desire realm: 1. the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings (dwelling on the slope of Mount Sumeru); 2. the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven (dwelling on the peak of Mount Sumeru, possessing thirty-three heavens itself; the above two heavens are attained by solely cultivating the upper grade of the ten wholesome deeds); 3. the Yāma Heaven; 4. the Tuṣita Heaven; 5. the Nirmāṇarati Heaven; 6. the Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven (the above four heavens dwell in empty space; cultivating the upper grade of the ten wholesome deeds combined with seated practice of the threshold concentration, one attains rebirth among them). Next, the eighteen heavens of the form realm are divided into four dhyānas: the three heavens of the first dhyāna (Brahmapāriṣadya, Brahmapurohita, Mahābrahmā); the three heavens of the second dhyāna (Parīttābha, Apramāṇābha, Ābhāsvara); the three heavens of the third dhyāna (Parīttaśubha, Apramāṇaśubha, Śubhakṛtsna); the nine heavens of the fourth dhyāna (Anabhraka, Puṇyaprasava, Bṛhatphala—the above three heavens are dwelling places of ordinary beings; those who cultivate the upper grade of the ten wholesome deeds and sit in dhyāna attain rebirth among them; the Heaven of Non-conception is where non-Buddhists dwell; Avṛha, Atapa, Sudṛśa, Sudarśana, and Akaniṣṭha—the above five heavens are dwelling places of the third fruition. The upper nine heavens are free from the coarse scatteredness of desire, but have not escaped the cage of form, hence they are named the form realm; because they attain dhyāna-concentration by sitting, they receive the name dhyāna); third, the four heavens of the formless realm (the Sphere of Boundless Space, the Sphere of Boundless Consciousness, the Sphere of Nothingness, and the Sphere of Neither Conception nor Non-conception; the above four heavens have only the four [mental] aggregates and lack the form aggregate, hence they receive this name). As explained above, from hell to the Sphere of Neither Conception nor Non-conception, although suffering and pleasure differ, they cannot avoid being born and dying again, dying and then being born again; hence it is called birth and death. This is the real existence of the truth of suffering in the Tripitaka teaching.

1.27

Second, the truth of origination refers to the delusions of views and thought. It is also called views and cultivation, the four entrenchments, defiled ignorance, the delusion of grasping at marks, branch-and-leaf ignorance, shared delusion, and delusion within the realms. Though the names differ, they are simply views and thought. First, to explain the delusion of views: there are eighty-eight entangling proclivities, namely, (1) view of personal identity, (2) extreme view, (3) adherence to views, (4) adherence to precepts and vows, and (5) wrong view (these are the sharp proclivities); (6) greed, (7) anger, (8) delusion, (9) conceit, and (10) doubt (these are the blunt proclivities). When these ten proclivities are applied to the four truths across the three realms, with varying additions and omissions, they total eighty-eight. Specifically, under suffering in the desire realm, all ten proclivities are present; under origination and cessation, there are seven proclivities each, omitting view of personal identity, extreme view, and adherence to precepts and vows; under the truth of the path, there are eight proclivities, omitting view of personal identity and extreme view. Under the four truths [in the desire realm], they total thirty-two. Under the four truths of the upper two realms, the remainder are just as in the desire realm, except that the proclivity of anger is omitted under each truth; thus each realm has twenty-eight, and the two realms together make fifty-six, which combined with the previous thirty-two make eighty-eight proclivities in all. Second, to explain the delusion of thought: there are eighty-one grades. Specifically, the three realms are divided into nine stages: the desire realm taken together forms one stage, and the four dhyānas and four meditative attainments make eight, totaling nine stages. Within the single stage of the desire realm, there are nine grades of greed, anger, delusion, and conceit. 'Nine grades' means superior-superior, superior-medium, superior-inferior; medium-superior, medium-medium, medium-inferior; inferior-superior, inferior-medium, and inferior-inferior. Each of the upper eight stages also has nine grades, omitting the proclivity of anger; thus they make eighty-one. The distinctions of views and thought set forth above all constitute the truth of origination as real existence in the Tripiṭaka teaching.

1.28

Third, the truth of cessation means eradicating the suffering and origination described above and revealing the one-sided true principle. Because one realizes the truth through cessation, cessation itself is not the ultimate truth.

1.29

Fourth, the truth of the path, briefly put, is morality, concentration, and wisdom; in detail, it is the thirty-seven factors of awakening. These thirty-seven are grouped into seven categories: (1) the four foundations of mindfulness: [i] contemplating the body as impure (the aggregate of form), [ii] contemplating feelings as suffering (the aggregate of sensation), [iii] contemplating the mind as impermanent (the aggregate of consciousness), and [iv] contemplating dharmas as without self (the aggregates of perception and mental formations); (2) the four right exertions: [i] causing unarisen evil not to arise, [ii] causing arisen evil to be eliminated, [iii] causing unarisen good to arise, and [iv] causing arisen good to increase; (3) the four bases of psychic power (aspiration, mind, diligence, and investigation); (4) the five faculties (faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom); (5) the five powers (having the same names as the faculties above); (6) the seven limbs of awakening (mindfulness, investigation of dharmas, diligence, joy, pliancy, concentration, and equanimity); (7) the eightfold noble path (right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration). The seven categories above constitute the truth of the path of arising and ceasing in the Tripiṭaka teaching.

1.30

Now, the names and numerical categories of the four truths listed above apply throughout the three teachings below as well; they differ only according to whether the teaching is broad or narrow, superior or inferior, and whether they are [the four truths of] arising and ceasing, non-arising, immeasurable, or non-contrived; therefore, their names and numerical categories will not be listed again below. Furthermore, the four truths are divided into the worldly and the supramundane: the first two truths are worldly cause and effect (suffering is the effect, origination is the cause), and the latter two truths are supramundane cause and effect (cessation is the effect, the path is the cause).

1.31

Question: Why are the worldly and supramundane presented with the effect first and the cause afterward? Answer: Because the faculties of the śrāvakas are dull, they know suffering, sever origination, aspire to the effect, and cultivate the cause; therefore it is so.

1.32

Next is a brief explanation of the practitioners and ranks in the Tripiṭaka teaching. First, explaining the ranks of the śrāvakas, they are divided into two: first, ordinary beings; second, noble ones. Ordinary beings are also divided into two: external ordinary beings and internal ordinary beings.

1.33

The explanation of external ordinary beings is itself divided into three: First, the five methods for stilling the mind: (1) for beings with much greed, contemplation of impurity; (2) for beings with much anger, contemplation of compassion; (3) for beings with much distraction, contemplation of counting the breath; (4) for ignorant beings, contemplation of conditioned arising; (5) for beings with many obstacles, contemplation of the Buddha. Second, the foundations of mindfulness with specific marks (the four foundations of mindfulness explained above). Third, the foundations of mindfulness with general marks: contemplating the body as impure, and feelings, mind, and dharmas as likewise impure, up to contemplating dharmas as without self, and body, feelings, and mind as likewise without self, the intermediate cases being understood accordingly. (These three categories above are called external ordinary beings, and are also called the stage of provisioning).

1.34

Second, explaining internal ordinary beings, there are four: namely, heat, summit, forbearance, and supreme mundane dharma. (These four ranks are internal ordinary beings, also called the stage of intensified practice, and also called the ranks of the four roots of goodness). The internal and external ordinary beings above are collectively named the ordinary ranks, and are also named the ranks of the seven expedients.

1.35

Next, the noble ranks are explained, which are also divided into three: (1) the path of seeing (the first fruit), (2) the path of cultivation (the second and third fruits), and (3) the path of no-learning (the fourth fruit). First, the srotāpanna, which is translated as 'stream-enterer'; at this rank one severs the delusion of views of the eighty-eight proclivities in the three realms, and because one sees the ultimate truth, it is called the path of seeing, and is also called the noble rank. Second, the sakṛdāgāmin, which is translated as 'once-returner'; among the nine grades of thought delusion of the desire realm, one severs the first six grades completely, while the last three grades still remain; therefore one returns once more. Third, the anāgāmin, which is translated as 'non-returner'; at this rank one severs the remaining thought delusion of the desire realm completely, and advances to sever the thought delusion of the upper eight stages. Fourth, the arhat, which is translated as 'one of no-learning', also as 'unborn', also as 'slayer of the thieves', and also as 'worthy of offerings'; at this rank one severs views and thought completely; the bond of causes has already been severed, but the bond of retribution still remains; this is called nirvāṇa with remainder. If one turns the body to ash and extinguishes consciousness, it is called nirvāṇa without remainder, and is also called solitary and independent liberation. This concludes the brief explanation of the ranks of the śrāvaka.

1.36

Next, explaining the pratyekabuddha, also called the solitary awakened one: meeting a buddha appearing in the world, one receives the teaching of the twelve links of dependent origination, namely: (1) ignorance (the affliction hindrance, the path of affliction), (2) karmic formations (the karmic hindrance, the path of karma; these two links belong to the past), (3) consciousness (the portion of breath that lodges in the womb), (4) name-and-form (name is mental, form is physical), (5) the six sense fields (the six sense faculties completing within the womb), (6) contact (emerging from the womb), (7) feeling (receiving and experiencing pleasant, unpleasant, and other conditions; from consciousness to feeling are named the five present effects), (8) craving (craving form, men and women, gold, silver, money, goods, and such matters), (9) grasping (whenever perceiving any condition, generating an attached mind; these two are future causes, both belonging to affliction, just like the past ignorance), (10) becoming (karma is already completed; this is a future cause belonging to the path of karma, just like the past karmic formations), (11) birth (the matter of undergoing future rebirth), (12) aging and death. These are the objects to be extinguished, which differ from the previous four truths only by way of expansion and condensation. How are they expanded or condensed? Ignorance, karmic formations, craving, grasping, and becoming—these five links are condensed into the truth of origination, and the remaining seven links constitute the truth of suffering. Since the names differ while the meaning is identical, why are they stated again? It is because of differences in individual capacity. The pratyekabuddha first contemplates the truth of origination, namely: ignorance conditions karmic formations, karmic formations condition consciousness, and so forth up to birth conditioning aging and death—this is arising. As for the contemplation of cessation: when ignorance ceases, karmic formations cease, and so forth up to when birth ceases, aging and death cease. Because one awakens to the ultimate truth principle through contemplating the twelve links of dependent origination, one is called 'awakened to conditions' (pratyekabuddha). 'Solitary awakened one' means that one appears in a world without a buddha, lodges alone on an isolated peak, observes the mutability of things, and awakens on one's own to non-arising; hence the name solitary awakened one. Though the two names differ, there is no distinction in practice or rank. This practitioner severs the views and thought of the three realms identically to the śrāvaka, but additionally erodes habitual propensities, and therefore ranks above the śrāvaka.

1.37

Next, explaining the ranks of the bodhisattva: from the initial generation of the mind, taking the four truths as objects, one gives rise to the four universal vows and cultivates the practices of the six perfections. First, 'to cause those not yet ferried across to be ferried across', which is 'living beings are boundless, I vow to ferry them across', taking the truth of suffering as its object; second, 'to cause those not yet liberated to be liberated', which is 'afflictions are inexhaustible, I vow to sever them', taking the truth of origination as its object; third, 'to cause those not yet at peace to be at peace', which is 'dharma gates are measureless, I vow to learn them', taking the truth of the path as its object; fourth, 'to cause those who have not yet attained nirvāṇa to attain nirvāṇa', which is 'the Buddha Way is supreme, I vow to achieve it', taking the truth of cessation as its object. Having already generated the mind, one must perform practices to fulfill the vows: throughout three asaṃkhyeya kalpas one cultivates the practices of the six perfections, and for one hundred kalpas one plants the causes for the marks and signs.

1.38

Concerning 'three asaṃkhyeya (countless) kalpas (eons)', considering the divisions briefly in terms of Śākyamuni's cultivation of the bodhisattva path: from the ancient Śākyamuni to Śikhin Buddha, he encountered 75,000 buddhas; this is named the first asaṃkhyeya. From this point forward, he was always freed from female rebirth and the four evil destinies, and constantly cultivated the six perfections, yet did not know himself that he would become a buddha; compared to the śrāvaka ranks, this corresponds to the five methods for stilling the mind and the foundations of mindfulness with specific and general marks (external ordinary beings). Next, from Śikhin Buddha to Dīpaṃkara Buddha, he encountered 76,000 buddhas; this is named the second asaṃkhyeya. At this time, he offered seven stems of lotus flowers and spread his hair to cover the mud, and received the prophecy under the name Śākyamuni; at that time, he knew himself that he would become a buddha, but could not yet proclaim it with his mouth; compared to the śrāvaka ranks, this corresponds to the rank of heat. Next, from Dīpaṃkara Buddha to Vipaśyin Buddha, encountering 77,000 buddhas, this is named the fulfillment of the third asaṃkhyeya. At this time, he knew it himself and also declared to others that he would surely become a buddha, with neither self nor others doubting; compared to the śrāvaka ranks, this corresponds to the rank of summit. After cultivating the six perfections for this amount of time, he dwelt for a further hundred kalpas planting the causes of the marks and signs, cultivating one hundred merits to accomplish a single mark. The explanations of merit are many, and hard to determine conclusively. It is also said that curing an entire great trichiliocosm of blind people counts as one merit, and so on. In cultivating the six perfections, each has its time of fulfillment: such as King Śibi offering himself in place of the dove, fulfilling generosity; King Prabhasa surrendering his kingdom, fulfilling morality; the ascetic Kṣāntivādin being dismembered by King Kali without resentment, fulfilling forbearance; Prince Mahātyāgavān bailing the ocean, and standing on one foot for seven days praising Puṣya Buddha, fulfilling diligence; Śāṅgārava with a magpie nesting upon his head, fulfilling meditation; and the minister Govinda dividing Jambudvīpa into seven parts to quell disputes, fulfilling wisdom. Compared to the early śrāvaka ranks, this is the rank of lower forbearance. Next, he enters the rank of succession and is born in Tuṣita, enters and emerges from the womb, leaves home, subdues Māra, and sits unmoved; this is the rank of medium forbearance. In the next instant, he enters the rank of higher forbearance. In the next instant, he enters the rank of supreme mundane dharma, gives rise to true non-outflow, and in thirty-four mental moments suddenly severs the habitual propensities of views and thought. Sitting beneath the wooden bodhi tree with fresh grass as his seat, he becomes a buddha with an inferior response body of sixteen feet. Receiving the request of the Brahma king, he turns the wheel of the Dharma three times, delivers beings of the three capacities, abides in the world for eighty years, manifests the appearance of an aged monk, and enters nirvāṇa without remainder like wood exhausted and fire extinguished: this is the buddha fruit of the Tripiṭaka [teaching].

1.39

Although the cultivation and realization of the fruits by the three persons explained above are different, they equally sever views and thought, equally transcend the three realms, and equally realize the one-sided true principle, merely traveling three hundred yojanas to enter the conjured city. This briefly concludes the Tripiṭaka teaching.

1.40

Next, the shared teaching is explained. It connects with the preceding Tripitaka teaching and connects with the subsequent distinct and perfect [teachings]; hence it is named the "shared teaching." Furthermore, it receives its name from within the teaching itself, meaning that persons of the three vehicles alike rely on the ineffable path, embodying form to enter emptiness; hence it is named the shared teaching. According to the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, the ten grounds beginning with dry wisdom are precisely the ranks of this teaching. First is the Ground of Dry Wisdom: because it does not yet possess the water of principle, it obtains this name; this is the rank of external ordinary beings, equal to the three ranks of the five meditations for settling the mind and the general and specific applications of mindfulness in the Tripitaka teaching. Second is the Ground of Nature: one semblantly obtains the water of Dharma-nature and subdues the delusions of views and thought; this is the rank of internal ordinary beings, equal to the four wholesome roots in the Tripitaka teaching. Third is the Ground of the Eight Intelligents, and fourth is the Ground of Vision: in these two ranks one enters the uninterrupted samādhi, completely severs the eighty-eight entangling delusions of views of the three realms, produces genuine uncorrupted [wisdom], and perceives the principle of ultimate truth, equal to the first fruit of the Tripitaka teaching. Fifth is the Ground of Thinning: one severs the first six of the nine grades of [delusions of] thought in the desire realm, equal to the second fruit of the Tripitaka teaching. Sixth is the Ground of Freedom from Desire: one severs all nine grades of [delusions of] thought in the desire realm, equal to the third fruit of the Tripitaka teaching. Seventh is the Ground of Having Completed: one severs all delusions of views and thought of the three realms, but only severs the active entanglements without being able to affect the latent habits, like burning wood into charcoal; this is equal to the fourth fruit of the Tripitaka teaching. The ranks of the śrāvaka are equal to this point. Eighth is the Ground of the Pratyekabuddha: one further affects the latent habits, like burning charcoal into ash. Ninth is the Ground of the Bodhisattva: active entanglements are completely severed, identical with the two vehicles; one supports latent habits to moisturize rebirth, while the path and contemplation flow together; one disports in spiritual penetrations and purifies Buddha lands. Tenth is the Ground of the Buddha: when conditions and capacity have ripened, with a single thought-moment of corresponding wisdom one suddenly severs the residual latent habits, sits beneath a seven-jeweled Bodhi tree using heavenly garments as a seat, and manifests a superior response body with inferior traces to achieve buddhahood. For the capacities of the three vehicles, he turns the Dharma wheel of the four truths of non-arising; when conditions are exhausted he enters extinction, with active [delusions] and latent habits both eliminated, like charcoal and ash both consumed. A sūtra says: "Three beasts cross the river, namely the elephant, the horse, and the hare," because it exemplifies the differences in severing delusions. Again, a sūtra says: "The real mark of all phenomena is attained alike by the three vehicles, yet they are not called Buddhas." This refers precisely to this teaching. In this teaching, the causes for the three vehicles are the same while the fruits are different; although their realized fruits differ, they alike sever views and thought, alike transcend segmented [birth and death], and alike realize biased emptiness. Yet among bodhisattvas there are two types, namely sharp and dull. The dull merely perceive biased emptiness and do not perceive the non-empty; they only achieve the fruit-head Buddha of the teaching itself; although their causal practices differ, their fruit is equal to that of the Tripitaka teaching, hence it is said to "connect with the preceding." If a bodhisattva of sharp faculty not only perceives emptiness but also perceives the non-empty, the non-empty is precisely the Middle Way. It is divided into two types: the "exclusive" and the "non-exclusive." If one perceives the exclusive Middle, the distinct teaching comes to receive them; if one perceives the non-exclusive Middle, the perfect teaching comes to receive them. Hence it is said to "connect with the subsequent."

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