釋氏稽古略 1

English (machine translation) 1

Language: English

1.1

Preface to the Brief Historical Survey of the Śākya Lineage (Shishi jigu lüe)

In Wuxing there was a great bhikṣu named the venerable Baozhou [Jue]'an. He was broadly learned and versed in past and present. He once investigated the historical facts of the Śākya lineage spanning several thousand years, taking the years as warp and the states as weft, and composed a volume entitled the Hand Mirror of Examining Antiquity (Jigu shoujian). Subsequently, considering it still incomplete, he expanded upon his previous compilation to produce the Brief Historical Survey of Examining Antiquity (Jigu lüe). In the autumn of the fourteenth year of Zhizheng [1354], the ninth month, Liu Yaofu of Taiyuan brought this book on his behalf and requested that I write a preface to head the volume. Thereupon I took it and read it. From the time the Buddha appeared, the deeds and lives of eminent teachers and bhadantas, the rise and decline of stūpas and monasteries, and the numbers of monks are completely recorded without omission. He took the internal scriptures as his root, collated them with the various dynastic histories, drew broadly upon biographies, and occasionally drew upon prominent and manifest events as evidence, intending to magnify the patronage across successive dynasties while lodging admonitions and warnings therein. The chronology of years and months was verified with utmost precision, leaving nothing wanting. It can truly be called comprehensive and detailed! Yet he still titled it a 'Brief Survey' out of his personal modesty. I have often wondered at how the Buddhist teaching travelled tens of thousands of li from Shendu to reach China, where the longer it stayed the more it flourished, its roots becoming so deep and firm that they could not be uprooted. What is the reason for this? Is it not because there have been individuals across successive generations who sustained this teaching? Those recorded in this compilation were often men of heroic and eminent talent who maintained self-respect without yielding and stood remarkably upright, causing princes, dukes, and high ministers to look up to them in devotion and faith, hurrying forward with no leisure to spare. How great, then, was their service in sustaining it! This was precisely the Master's intention in compiling and setting it forth. An ancient transmission says: 'Those whose paths are different cannot lay plans together.' The books of the Buddha are not what I have studied. Yet I particularly praise his extensive knowledge and the diligence and energy of his mind. Though our paths are different, I could not decline to write a preface. Alas! Looking at his book and seeing the flourishing of his teaching, and knowing that there were indeed people who sustained it, one can truly be deeply moved.

1.3

Preface by Li Huan of Zhongshan.

1.4

Recarved by the junior student, the śramaṇa Changfu of Tianwang Monastery on Mount Gouqu, on the jiashen day of the second month (guxi), the guichou year of Jiajing in the Great Ming [1553].

1.5

I have occasionally dipped into the books of the three teachings. Though their paths differ, their principle is one. The venerable Baozhou [Jue]'an of the Southern Chan [Monastery] in Songjiang, broadly versed in past and present, examined biographies and collected the historical traces and lives of the Śākya lineage, compiling them into a book of four fascicles entitled the Brief Historical Survey of Examining Antiquity (Jigu lüe). Now, the two words 'examining antiquity' (jigu) originated in the times of Tang and Yu; its provenance is ancient indeed. While respectfully serving in this prefecture, I was able to observe how Baozhou named his book based on ancient historical discourse, fully narrating the intention of the Buddhas and Patriarchs coming from the West. Vast and boundless, it clearly has its origins and developments. Alas! Were it not for one whose wise nature is thoroughly penetrating and who has deeply harboured the profound mysteries of the Buddha, who could achieve such a work? If later scholars can take Baozhou's mind as their own mind, what worry is there that they will not reach the realm of seeing one's nature and attaining Buddhahood? Ah!

1.6

Respectfully inscribed by Cui (Sicheng) of Luoyang on an auspicious dawn in the first month of summer, the yiwei year of Zhizheng [1355].

1.7

Preface to the Brief Historical Survey of Examining Antiquity (Jigu lüe)

1.8

My late master, the Venerable Gujin, inherited the legacy of the patriarchal seat and presided over Haichao Monastery for twenty-four years. He restored what had fallen into ruin and promoted the tradition of the school. Those from the four directions who came to take refuge arrived heel to toe. In the renzi year of Xianfeng [1852], my late master resigned from his duties and retired, transmitting [the monastery] to me, Qingdao. Yet because my roots and karmic capacity are shallow, I was unable to bear the weight of the entrusted transmission. Furthermore, encountering the calamities of the geng-xin years [the Taiping Rebellion], the monastery was destroyed by fire. In the jiazi year, the third year of Tongzhi [1864], I, Qingdao, went to the old site, built a thatched hut, and solicited funds, seeking to rebuild inch by inch. Graced by donors across the realm competing to give alms, the Buddhist halls were restored in succession and a Chan hall was added, providing a resting place for wandering monks and laity. I, Qingdao, dare not boast of any merit; it was truly the late master's compassionate protection that secretly aided me. I further considered that the monastery's assembly gathers to cultivate and burn incense morning and night; without scriptures, it is like walking at night with an extinguished lamp—how could they fathom the ancestral purport? Yet among the bodhimaṇḍas of the Five Mountains and Ten Monasteries in Zhejiang, all of which had been graced with the Dragon Canon bestowed by successive imperial sages, every single one had been reduced to ashes during the kalpa of destruction, leaving not one preserved. In the xinye year of Guangxu [1881], with determined intent I traveled north and submitted a memorial. The government conveyed it to the imperial ear, and an edict was issued bestowing a complete set of the Dragon Canon, accompanied by an imperial escort. Respectfully and cautiously I carried it back, building a pavilion to enshrine and store it as a treasure of the mountain gate. At that time, my worldly age had reached seventy. Decrepit and dull as ever, I retired to a separate cloister to carry out my late master's legacy. I reflected again that the true words and secret truths of the ancient sages are in fact the classics and commentaries of the Confucians; the Jingde Transmission of the Lamp (Jingde chuandeng lu), the Biographies of Eminent Monks, Biographies of Sagely Monks, the Comprehensive Record of the Buddhas and Patriarchs (Fozu tongzai), and other works are in fact the historical mirrors of the Confucians; the recorded sayings and commentaries of eminent sages are in fact the philosophical and literary collections of the Confucians; the gradual and sudden approaches of the Chan school are precisely the substance and function of the Confucians; and the Forty-Two Sections Sūtra and the Doctrine of the Mean share the same efficacy in penetrating from top to bottom. If one does not immerse one's mind in searching them out, how can one transcend into the Great Vehicle? In the early Zhizheng era of the Yuan dynasty, Chan Master Jue'an compiled the Brief Historical Survey of the Śākya Lineage (Shishi jigu lüe) in four fascicles. It is truly an indispensable compilation among the Indian scriptures and a precious raft for us. It was cataloged in the Siku quanshu, but few copies circulated in the world, leaving later students without means to consult it. My Dharma-disciples treasured this book, which was appended with the three fascicles of the Continued Brief Survey by the Ming monk Dawen; sadly, it was badly damaged. Borrowing the copy held in the Eight Thousand Fascicles Tower of the Ding family of Qiantang, it was meticulously collated. Following the convention of recarving ancient books without altering the calligraphy style, the original book was recommitted to the carvers. We respectfully set forth the imperially authorized abstract at the beginning of the volume to disseminate imperial benevolence and instruct future students. That an unlearned person such as myself, Qingdao, should have my name appended at the end of the volume is truly a great fortune.

1.9

Respectfully recorded on the eighth day of the fourth month, the bingxu year, the twelfth year of the Guangxu reign [1886], by the patched-robe monk Qingdao.

1.10

Chart of the Dynasties (Based on the Record of the Five Transmutations)

1.11

Brief Chart of the Succession of Patriarchs of the Lineage of Śākyamuni Buddha (Based on the Zhengzong ji)

1.12

┌───────┐

1.13

┌─ Ulkāmukha ───┐　┌─ King Śuddhodana ──┐┌─ Śākyamuni Buddha ─┘┌─ Mahānāma　　│

1.14

└──────┐│　│　　　　　　││　　　　　　┌┤　　　　　　│

1.15

┌─ Ikṣvāku ──┘│　│　　　　　　└┤　　　　　　│└─ Aniruddha　　│

1.16

└──────┐│　│　King Droṇodana ──┐└─ Venerable Nanda　│　　　　　　　│

1.17

○ King Mahāsaṃmata ─┘│　│　　　　　　└───────┘　　　　　　　│

1.18

┌───────┘┌┤　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　│

1.19

└─ Kura ───┐　││　　　　　　┌───────┐┌─ Venerable Bhadrika　│

1.20

┌──────┘　││　King Amṛtodana ─┘┌─ Devadatta　　　││　　　　　　│

1.21

└─ Gokura ──┐　││　　　　　　┌┤　　　　　　└┤　Venerable Tiṣya　│

1.22

┌──────┘　││　　　　　　││　　　　　　　│　　　　　　│

1.23

└─ Siṃhahanu ────┘└─ King Śuklodana ──┘└─ Venerable Ānanda　　└─ Amṛtā　│

1.24

┌─────────────────────────────────┘

1.25

└　1st Patriarch: Venerable Mahākāśyapa; 2nd Patriarch: Venerable Ānanda; 3rd Patriarch: Venerable Śāṇakavāsa; 4th Patriarch: Venerable Upagupta

1.26

5th Patriarch: Venerable Dhitika; 6th Patriarch: Venerable Miccaka; 7th Patriarch: Venerable Vasumitra; 8th Patriarch: Venerable Buddhanandi

1.27

9th Patriarch: Venerable Buddhamitra; 10th Patriarch: Venerable Pārśva; 11th Patriarch: Venerable Puṇyayaśas; 12th Patriarch: Great Being Aśvaghoṣa

1.28

13th Patriarch: Great Being Kapimala; 14th Patriarch (First Patriarch of the Tiantai school): Great Being Nāgārjuna; 15th Patriarch: Great Being Kāṇadeva; 16th Patriarch: Great Being Rāhulata

1.29

17th Patriarch: Great Being Saṅghanandi; 18th Patriarch: Great Being Gayāśata; 19th Patriarch: Great Being Kumāralāta; 20th Patriarch: Great Being Jayata

1.30

21st Patriarch: Great Being Vasubandhu; 22nd Patriarch: Great Being Manorhita; 23rd Patriarch: Great Being Haklenayaśas; 24th Patriarch: Venerable Siṃha

1.31

25th Patriarch: Venerable Bāśiasita; 26th Patriarch: Venerable Puṇyamitra; 27th Patriarch: Venerable Prajñātāra; 28th Patriarch: Venerable Bodhidharma

1.32

29th Patriarch (Second Patriarch of the Eastern Land): Venerable Huike; 30th Patriarch (Third Patriarch of the Eastern Land): Venerable Sengcan; 31st Patriarch (Fourth Patriarch of the Eastern Land): Venerable Daoxin; 32nd Patriarch (Fifth Patriarch of the Eastern Land): Venerable Hongren

1.33

33rd Patriarch (Sixth Patriarch of the Eastern Land): Venerable Huineng ────────────────────────────────────────┐

1.34

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

1.35

│　　　　　　┌───────────┐

1.36

│┌─ Nanyue Rang ─┘┌──── Longtan Xin ─┐　└───── Mazu Yi ─┐　　┌──── Zhaozhou Shen　　　　　┌──── Dagui Zhong ─┐

1.37

└┤　　　　　　│　　┌─────┘　　　　┌──────┘　　│　　　　　　　　　　　　│　　┌─────┘

1.38

└─ Qingyuan Si ─┐│　　└─ Deshan Jian ─┐　　　　│┌─ Nanquan Yuan ────┘┌─── Fenyang Zhao ─┐　　　│　　└─ Pu'an Su

1.39

┌─────┘│　　┌─────┘　　　　└┤　　　　　　　　　│　┌─────┘　　　│

1.40

└─ Shitou Qian ─┐│　　└─ Xuefeng Cun ─┐　　└─ Baizhang Hai ─┐　　　│　└─ Shishuang Yuan ─┐　　　│┌─── Ying'an Hua ─┐

1.41

┌──────┘│┌──────────┘┌───────┘　　　│　┌─────┘　　　││　┌─────┘

1.42

│┌─ Tianhuang Wu ──┘│┌─ ○ Yunmen Yan ─┐　　　│┌── Huangbo Yun ─┐│　└─ Yangqi Hui ─┐　　　││　└─ Mi'an Jie ─┐

1.43

└┤　　　　　　　││┌─────┘　　　└┤　　　　　　　　　││　┌─────┘　　　││　┌─────┘

1.44

└─ Yaoshan Yan ─┐　││└─ Baling Jian ─┐　　　　└─ ○ Dagui You ─┐　　││　└─ Baiyun Duan ─┐　　　││　└─ Lingyin Yue

1.45

┌───────┘　└┤┌─────┘　　　　　┌─────┘　　││┌──────┘　　　││

1.46

│┌── Chuanzi Cheng ─┐　　│└─ Shuangquan Kuan　　　　　　　└─ Yangshan Ji ─┐　　│││┌─ Wuzu Yan ───┐　││　┌─ Tiantong Quan

1.47

││┌─────┘　　│　　　　　　　　　　　　┌─────┘　　││└┤　　　　　　　│　││　│

1.48

││└─ Jiashan Hui ─┐　　└── Xuansha Bei ─┐　　　　　└─ Nan Ta Yong　　　　││　└─ Langye Jiao │　││　│　Yuwang Guang

1.49

└┤┌─────┘　　　┌─────┘　　　　┌─────────┘│┌────────┘　││　│

1.50

│└─ Shanglan Chao　　　　　└─ Luohan Chen ─┐　　　　└─ ○ Linji Xuan ─┐　　　││┌─ Foyan Yuan ─────┘│　│　Donglin Yan

1.51

│　　　　　　　　　┌──────┘　　　　　┌─────┘　　　│││　　　　　　　　　　│　│

1.52

└── Dongyan Sheng ─┐　　└─ ○ Fayan Yi ─┐　　　　　└─ Xinghua Jiang ─┐　　　│└┤　Foguo Qin ─┐　　　　│┌┤　Dachan Ming

1.53

┌──────┘　　┌──────┘　　　　　┌─────┘　　　│　│　　　　　│　　　　│││

1.54

└─ ○ Dongshan Liangjie ─┐　　│┌─ Tiantai Shao ─┐　　　　　└─ Nanyuan Yong ─┐　　　│　└─ Fojian Qin　│　　　　│││　Those with ○

1.55

┌─────┘　　└┤　　　　　│　　　　　┌─────┘　　　│┌──────┘　　　　│││

1.56

└─ Caoshan Ji ─┐　　　└─ Yongming Qian　│　　　　　└─ Fengxue Zhao ─┐　　　││┌─ Huqiu Long ──────┘││　mark the beginnings

1.57

┌─────┘　　　┌─────┘　　　　　┌─────┘　　　│└┤　　　　　　　　　　　││

1.58

└─ Lumen Zhen　　　　　└─ Yongming Shou　　　　　　　└─ Shoushan Nian ─────┘　└─ Dahui Gao ───────┘└─ of Chan's five houses.

1.59

Compiled and revised by Bhikṣu Shi Jue'an of Baoxiang, Zhili, Wucheng, Baozhou.

1.60

The Three Sovereigns

1.61

Taihao, the Paoxi Clan

1.62

His surname was Feng. He reigned through the virtue of Wood. His capital was at Wanqiu (now Chenzhou in the Circuit of Bianliang, commandery name Huaiyang; the territory of Yu Province in the 'Tribute of Yu'). In high antiquity, human beings pursued birds and beasts, eating their meat and wearing their hides, which was difficult to attain. Taihao taught the people to make nets, so as to hunt, fish, and raise the six domestic animals; furthermore, because he used sacrificial animals to make offerings to the gods and spirits, he was called the Paoxi ('Kitchen Sacrifice') Clan. Later generations called him the Fuxi Clan. He was the first to draw the eight trigrams and create written tallies, from which documents and records arose. He recorded his officers using dragons. He was on the throne for one hundred and sixteen years. The Book of Changes states: 'Fuxi hollowed out wood to make boats, and shaved wood to make oars.' The Qin Cao states: 'Fuxi created the zither to cultivate the person and regulate the nature, returning to one's natural authenticity.' The Tongli states: 'Fuxi created the twenty-five-stringed se zither to establish the rituals of marriage.' The Tujing states: 'Paoxi was born in Chengji County, Qinzhou, in the Circuit of Gongchang, Shaanxi; his mother was Huaxu; it is within the territory of Yong Province in the "Tribute of Yu". In Huozhou, Hezhong Superior Prefecture, in the Circuit of Jinning, there is the Funiu Terrace, the place where Fuxi tamed oxen and rode horses. The tomb of Nüwa is located there (the territory of Ji Province). In Luzhou, Huaxi, there is an ancient temple to Nüwa.'

1.63

The Nüwa Clan, the Gonggong Clan, the Dating Clan, the Baihuang Clan, the Zhonghuang Clan, the Lilu Clan, the Lilian Clan, the Hexu Clan, the Zunlu Clan, the Hundun Clan, the Haoying Clan, the Zhuxiang Clan, the Getian Clan, the Yinkang Clan, the Wuhuai Clan.

1.64

In the second month of the fifth year of the Yuanyou era of Emperor Zhezong of the Song dynasty, the Shaoyun tu by Zhuge Shen stated: 'The above fifteen clans totaled 17,787 years.'

1.65

Gods of the Altars of Soil and Grain. The Fengsu tong states: 'The son of the Gonggong Clan was named Xiu. He loved to travel far. Wherever boats and carts reached, wherever footprints extended, there was nowhere he did not thoroughly explore. Therefore, he was sacrificed to as the god of the soil.' The Zuo zhuan states: 'The Gonggong Clan had a son named Goulong Clan. Because he pacified the waters and the land, he was sacrificed to as the god of the soil.' The Book of Rites states: 'When the Gonggong Clan hegemonized the Nine Provinces, their son was called Houtu. Because he was able to pacify the Nine Provinces, he was sacrificed to as the god of the soil. Furthermore, when the Lishan Clan possessed All-under-Heaven, their son Zhu was able to plant the five grains. Therefore, he was sacrificed to as the god of grain.' Cai Yong's Duduan states: 'Qi of the Zhou sowed and cultivated the hundred grains; taking grain (ji) as the chief of the hundred grains, he was accordingly named after grain. That god was Qi, Houtu of the Zhou.'

1.66

The Yan Emperor, the Shennong Clan

1.67

His surname was Jiang. He succeeded the Fuxi Clan. He reigned through the virtue of Fire. His capital was in Lu (now the Circuit of Dongping, the territory of Yan Province in the 'Tribute of Yu'). At that time, people chewed plants and drank water, eating the fruits of trees and the meat of birds and beasts, and suffered many diseases. The Yan Emperor sought edible things and taught them to cook food with fire. At that time, grain rained down from heaven; he thereupon taught the people to sow the five grains, made pottery and worked metal, axes, ploughs, ploughshares, hoes, and weeders, to clear the brushwood, and the five grains flourished; thus he was called the Shennong ('Divine Husbandman') Clan. Furthermore, he tasted the hundred herbs, encountering seventy poisons in a single day. Deeming that one person alone could not provide sustenance, he established markets at midday to facilitate the exchange of goods. He recorded his officers using fire. He was on the throne for one hundred and twenty years. Huan Tan's Xinlun states: 'The Shennong Clan carved paulownia wood into a zither and twisted silk into strings to communicate the virtues of the gods and luminous spirits.' The Guangya states: 'The zither of the Shennong Clan was three chi and six cun in length, with five strings upon it called gong, shang, jue, zhi, and yu. King Wen of Zhou added two strings, called minor gong and minor shang.'

1.68

Emperor Cheng, Emperor Lin, Emperor Ming, Emperor Xuan, Emperor Li, Emperor Ai, Emperor Yu, Emperor Gang: the above eight emperors all belonged to the Shennong Clan, totaling 510 years. In the final years, the feudal lords attacked one another, and turned their allegiance to the Yellow Emperor.

1.69

The Yellow Emperor, the Youxiong Clan

1.70

His surname was Gongsun, and his given name was Xuanyuan. He was the son of Shaodian, lord of the state of Youxiong. When the Shennong Clan was Son of Heaven, the feudal lords invaded and attacked one another, and the Shennong Clan was unable to launch punitive expeditions. Among the encroaching feudal lords, the most violent was Chiyou. Xuanyuan cultivated virtue and trained his troops; he fought against the Yan Emperor Clan and overcame him, and captured and killed Chiyou at Zhuolu (now Zhuozhou in the Circuit of Dadu, commandery name Fanyang, in the territory of Yu Province). Thereupon the feudal lords all turned to Xuanyuan, promoting Xuanyuan to replace the Shennong Clan as the Son of Heaven. In the first year of the Yellow Emperor, a dinghai year, he first established institutions and systems, and launched punitive campaigns against whoever in the realm was noncompliant. His territory extended east to the sea, west to Kongtong (now the territory of Yong Province in the Circuit of Suzhou, Gansu Province), south to the sea, and north he drove out the Xunyu. He established his settlement at the slope of Zhuolu, moving about without fixed abode, taking troops as his encampment and guards. He recorded his officers using clouds, having the auspicious omen of the virtue of Earth. He promoted Feng Hou, Li Mu, Quanshan Ji, Chang Xian, and Da Hong, obtaining six ministers; thereby heaven and earth were ordered, and the gods and luminous spirits arrived. The Emperor received the River Chart and observed the appearances of the sun, moon, and stars; thereupon books on celestial offices began to exist. He commanded Da Nao to probe the nature of the Five Phases and divine what the Dipper handle established; thereupon the sexagenary cycle (jiazi) was first created. He commanded Rong Cheng to construct the calendar, Li Shou to devise arithmetic, Ling Lun to create the musical pitch pipes, and Che Qu to divine the stellar vapors; Rong Cheng compiled and oversaw all of these. He produced emblems and attire to distinguish the noble and the base, and constructed boats and carts to cross impassable places. He delineated the wilderness and divided the provinces, obtaining ten thousand tracts of hundred-li states. Eight families made a well (jing); one well was a lin; three lin were a peng; three peng were a li; five li were an yi; ten yi were a du; ten du were a shi; ten shi were a zhou. He established the Grand Inspectors of the Left and Right to inspect the myriad states. He performed the Feng and Shan rituals and composed the music of Xianchi; among the distant barbarian lands, there was none that did not bring tribute. The Yellow Emperor had twenty-five sons, fourteen of whom received surnames, making twelve surnames: Ji, You, Qi, Ji, Teng, Zhen, Ren, Xun, Xi, Ji, Huan, and Xiu. The two sons of his principal consort were Xuanxiao and Changyi, both of whom became feudal lords. When the Yellow Emperor passed away, people believed he had ascended as an immortal. The Emperor was on the throne for one hundred and ten years (Shiji). Huangfu Mi states: 'The Yellow Emperor was born at Shouqiu in Qinzhou, Circuit of Gongchang, Shaanxi. His tomb is at Mount Qiao in Ningzhou (the territory of Yong Province).' The place where the Yellow Emperor ascended is Dinghu (now Mount Xiandu, Circuit of Chuzhou, Zhedong Circuit, the territory of Yang Province). The tomb of Chiyou (now Kan Township, Circuit of Dongping) is seven zhang high; the people regularly sacrifice to him in the tenth month; red vapor emerges from it like a bolt of crimson silk, which the people call the Banner of Chiyou.

1.71

The Yi Qianzuodu states: 'In the past, the Suiren Clan gazed upward to observe the Pole of the Dipper to determine the names of the directions; Paoxi followed this and drew the eight trigrams. The Yellow Emperor received the mandate and commanded Da Nao to create the sexagenary cycle and Rong Cheng to order the calendar calculations; the doctrines of the Five Phases and Nine Palaces arose from this. Therefore, the Explanation of the Trigrams states: "The yang number nine: to establish the Way of Heaven, it is called yin and yang; with two yin and one yang, Heaven has three; to establish the Way of Earth, it is called soft and hard; with two soft and one hard, Earth also has three; to establish the Way of Man, it is called benevolence and righteousness; with two righteousness and one benevolence, Man also has three." Three threes combine into nine; yin and yang envelop each other to accomplish the myriad things.'

1.72

The South-Pointing Chariot: When the Yellow Emperor fought Chiyou, Chiyou created a thick fog, and the soldiers all became lost. The Yellow Emperor constructed the South-Pointing Chariot to indicate the four directions, and thereupon captured and killed Chiyou. The state of Youxiong: this is modern Xinzheng in Henan (Shiji).

1.73

The Five Thearchs

1.74

Shaohao, the Jintian Clan

1.75

His surname was Ji. He was the son of the Yellow Emperor, and his style was Qingyang. He reigned through the virtue of Metal. His capital was at Qiongsang (now Qufu, Yanzhou, in the Circuit of Jining). Having the auspicious omen of the phoenix, he accordingly recorded his officers using birds. He was on the throne for eighty-four years, and lived to the age of one hundred.

1.76

Zhuanxu, the Gaoyang Clan

1.77

He was the son of Changyi and grandson of the Yellow Emperor. Ruling by the virtue of Water, he established his capital at Diqiu (present-day Puyang, Dongchang Route, in the territory of Yanzhou). He had eight talented sons, known as the 'Eight Harmonious Ones' (Ba Kai). During the decline of the Shaohao clan, the people were mixed together and defiled the sacrificial rites, offering worship without moderation. The Emperor pacified the rebellion of the Jiuli, ensuring that spirits and mortals did not mingle and did not infringe upon or desecrate one another. He created a calendar taking the first month of spring as the beginning of the year; hence, the Emperor was regarded as the founder of astronomy and calendars. His realm reached Panmu in the east, the Flowing Sands (Liusha) in the west, Jiaozhi in the south, and Youling (present-day Yanjing) in the north. He reigned for seventy-eight years. The Classic of the Seas and Mountains says: 'In the Eastern Sea there is a mountain named Dousuo, upon which stands a great peach tree twisting and coiling for three thousand li.' The Geographic Gazette states: 'The Flowing Sands are in Ganzhou Route, Gansu Province, under the commandery name of Zhangye.'

1.78

Emperor Ku, Gaoxin Clan

1.79

He was the son of Qiaoji and great-grandson of the Yellow Emperor. He ruled by the virtue of Wood and established his capital at West Bo (present-day Yanshi County, Henanfu Route, in the ancient territory of Luozhou). The Emperor was divine and sagacious from birth and spoke his own name. He complied with the righteousness of Heaven and understood the urgent needs of the people. He was benevolent yet awe-inspiring, gracious yet trustworthy. He harvested the wealth of Heaven and Earth and spent it with moderation; he comforted and educated the myriad folk and instructed them with benefit. He tracked the sun and moon, welcoming and seeing them off; he clearly recognized ghosts and spirits and served them with reverent care. Wherever the sun and moon shone and wherever the wind and rain reached, none failed to submit to him. He had eight talented sons, known as the 'Eight Primal Ones' (Ba Yuan). He was on the throne for seventy years and died at the age of one hundred and five. He passed away and was buried at Mount Qiu in present-day Kaizhou, Daming Route (in the territory of Yan and Ji provinces). His son Zhi ascended the throne and reigned for nine years, but was not virtuous; he abdicated in favor of the Marquis of Tang (Yao).

1.80

Emperor Yao, Taotang Clan

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He was a son of Emperor Ku and the younger brother of Zhi. When Zhi ascended the throne, he enfeoffed Yao as the Marquis of Tao, and later transferred his fief to Tang; hence he was called the Taotang clan. His surname was Yiqi. After Yao received the abdication from Zhi, he ruled by the virtue of Fire and established his capital at Pingyang (present-day Jinning Route, in the territory of Jizhou). His thatched eaves were untrimmed, and his earthen steps were only three feet high. Auspicious calendar-beans (mingjia) grew in his courtyard: it is an auspicious herb that sprouts one pod each day until the fifteenth day when fifteen pods are formed, and sheds one pod from the sixteenth day onwards until the thirtieth day when all have fallen (in a short month, two pods fall in succession), sprouting and shedding anew. The Emperor supported himself very frugally and levied few taxes and corvée services. At that time, there were the Dafeng, the Yayu, the Fengxi, and the giant serpent, which were all harms to the people. The Emperor sent Yi to shoot the Dafeng at the marsh of Qingqiu (a marsh in the east), kill the Yayu, cut down the giant serpent at Dongting, and capture the Fengxi at the Mulberry Forest; thereupon the people were delighted. A great flood became a disaster, and the Four Mountains recommended Gun (the father of Yu). He regulated the waters for nine years without success. The Emperor's son Danzhu was unworthy, so he sought a virtuous person who could receive his abdication. The ministers recommended Shun. The Emperor gave his two daughters in marriage to Shun and tested him through various hardships. When sent into the Great Foothills (present-day Shunde Route), violent winds, thunder, and rain did not cause him to lose his way. [Yao] then made him regent. After another twenty-eight years, the Emperor passed away. Yao's reign, including Shun's regency, totaled ninety-eight years, and his lifespan was one hundred and ninety-eight years. Yao composed music called Dazhang. Shun yielded before Yao's son Danzhu and retired to the south of the Yellow River (present-day Bianliang area), but the lords of the realm presenting court audiences and those seeking litigation went not to Danzhu but to Shun; thereupon Shun ascended the throne of the Son of Heaven (Records of the Grand Historian). The 'Canon of Yao' in the Book of Documents calls him 'Fangxun'. Shen of the Cai family said: ''Fangxun' is an overall description of Yao's virtue and deeds.'

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Emperor Shun, Youyu Clan

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He was named Chonghua and addressed as Doujun, an eighth-generation descendant of the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Emperor fathered Changyi; Changyi fathered Zhuanxu; Zhuanxu fathered Qiongchan; Qiongchan fathered Kangjing; Kangjing fathered Goubang; Goubang fathered Qiaoniu; Qiaoniu fathered Gusou; and Gusou fathered Shun. His surname was Yao. Shun's mother died, and his stepmother gave birth to Xiang. His parents and Xiang frequently wished to kill Shun. Shun fulfilled the ways of filial piety and fraternal duty to serve his parents, and treated his brother with utmost courtesy. He farmed at Mount Li (Hedong), fished at Lake Lei (Yanzhou), and made pottery by the Riverbank (southwest of Dingtao in present-day Jiyin, at Taoqiu Pavilion). Where he dwelt became a village in one year, a town in two years, and a city in three years. At twenty he was renowned for filial piety. At age thirty, Yao gave him two daughters in marriage and intended to abdicate the throne to him. Shun recommended the sons of the Gaoyang and Gaoxin clans, the 'Eight Harmonious Ones' and the 'Eight Primal Ones'. The Harmonious Ones took charge of the Earth, and the Primal Ones spread the Five Teachings across the four quarters. Yao thereupon made Shun regent. The Dihong clan had an unworthy son called Hundun, who was Huandou; the Shaohao clan had an unworthy son called Qiongqi; the Gonggong clan of the Zhuanxu lineage had an unworthy son called Taowu, who was Gun; the Jinyun clan had an unworthy son called Taotie, who was Sanmiao. These were called the Four Evils. They held office under Yao, and Yao had been unable to expel them; Shun cast them all out to the four frontiers. He promoted Yu to regulate the waters. Shun acted as regent to Yao for twenty-eight years. When Yao passed away, Shun ascended the throne of the Son of Heaven, ruling by the virtue of Earth. He established his capital at Puban (present-day Hezhong Prefecture, Jinning Route). He strummed a five-stringed lute and sang 'The Southern Breeze'. He used the armillary sphere and jade transverse to regulate the Seven Governors. He rectified the calendar, using intercalary additions to complete the year, and composed music called the Jiushao. When the Miao people disobeyed his orders, he displayed his virtue, dancing with shields and plumes on the two staircases for seventy days, and the Miao people came to submit. His son Shangjun was unworthy, so Shun recommended Yu to Heaven and made him succeed his throne. He reigned for fifty years. While on an inspection tour in the south, he passed away in the wilderness of Cangwu (present-day Cangwu Commandery, Wuzhou Route, Guangxi Circuit, within the territory of Jingzhou), at the age of one hundred and ten. Yu yielded before Shun's son Shangjun and retired to Yangcheng, but the people of the realm went not to Shangjun but to Yu. Yu then ascended the throne of the Son of Heaven; the name of the state was Xia. Shun once wished to make lacquered utensils, but ceased when remonstrated with (this is also seen under the seventeenth year of the Zhenguan reign of Emperor Taizong of the Tang).

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Auspicious births: A great star descended like a rainbow; Nüjie at Huazhu was moved by it and gave birth to Shaohao (Records of the Grand Historian). A star appeared like a rainbow, moving Nüshu, who gave birth to Emperor Zhuanxu (Commentary on the Book of Documents). Shun's mother was moved by a great rainbow and gave birth to Shun (Chronicles of Emperors and Kings).

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Before Shaohao, the titles of the realm represented their virtue; from Zhuanxu onward, the titles of the realm derived from their names. Names such as Gaoyang and Gaoxin were all the lands from which they arose.

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In the third year of the Yuanfeng reign of Emperor Shenzong of the Song, the Assistant Director of the Palace Library, Liu Shu (courtesy name Daoyuan), wrote in his Waiji: 'Among the Six Classics, only the Spring and Autumn Annals, and the Tuan, Xiang, Wenyan, Shuogua, Xugua, and Zagua of the Book of Changes were composed by Zhongni (Confucius). The Book of Songs and the Book of Documents were edited and settled by Zhongni. None of them use the designations of the Three Sovereigns, the Five Emperors, or the Three Kings. The "Xici II" of the Book of Changes states: "In ancient times, Baoxi ruled the world. When Baoxi died, Shennong arose; when Shennong died, the Yellow Emperor, Yao, and Shun arose." They succeeded one another and changed reigns without the enumeration of three or five. Some take Baoxi down to Shun as the Five Emperors, yet Confucius never said this; scholars must not make forced associations with subjective opinions. Guanzi states: "He who is luminous in unity is a Sovereign; he who examines the Way is an Emperor; he who penetrates virtue is a King; he whose strategies succeed and whose arms conquer is a Hegemon." Kong Yingda said: "The book of Guanzi might have been compiled by later people, not the original book." Zhuangzi and Liezi are both fables and absurdities; Han and Qin scholars revered their literary rhetoric and arguments, and thus competed in naming the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors, unaware that in antiquity there were no such figures and that Zhongni never spoke of them. Emperor Wu of the Liang considered Fuxi, Shennong, and Suiren as the Three Sovereigns, and the Yellow Emperor, Shaohao, Emperor Ku, Emperor Zhi, and Emperor Yao as the Five Emperors; he did not count Shun as one of the Three Kings nor as one of the Five Emperors, but grouped him with the Three Kings as the Four Dynasties, which makes no sense. Across successive generations, there has been endless confusion without a settled conclusion. The Grand Historian said: "Scholars often speak of the Five Emperors as ancient indeed; yet the Book of Documents records only from Yao onward, while the Hundred Schools speaking of the Yellow Emperor use words that are not refined and decorous, so gentlemen in robes and caps find them difficult to speak of. What was transmitted by Confucius—when Zai Yu asked about the Virtues of the Five Emperors and the Imperial Genealogies and Surnames—Confucian scholars sometimes do not transmit. I have traveled west to Kongtong, north past Zhuolu, east to the sea, and south sailed along the Yangtze and Huai rivers; the elders there frequently pointed out the places associated with the Yellow Emperor, Yao, and Shun. Their customs and teachings certainly differed, but in sum, those which do not deviate from the ancient texts are close to the truth." The Suoyin says: "'Ancient texts' refers to the two books, Virtues of the Emperors and Imperial Genealogies, which are close to the truth. They are the words of the Sage. Look at the Spring and Autumn Annals and the Discourses of the States: their elucidation of the Virtues of the Five Emperors and the Imperial Genealogies and Surnames is clear indeed! It is only that people have not deeply investigated them. What is manifested in them is by no means false. There are gaps where the texts are deficient, yet their lost fragments appear from time to time in other accounts. Unless one is fond of learning and thinks deeply, knowing their meaning in one's heart, it is truly difficult to explain them to those of shallow views and limited hearing." I have arranged and selected those words that are especially refined, and therefore compiled them at the head of the Basic Annals.'

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Xia

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Emperor Yu
King Qi
Taikang
Zhongkang
King Xiang
Shaokang
King Zhu
King Huai
King Mang
King Xie
Bujiang
King Jiong
King Jin
King Kongjia
King Gao
King Fa
Lügui (Jie)

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Emperor Yu

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His family name was Si. He was a descendant of the Yellow Emperor. Zhuanxu fathered Gun, and Gun fathered Yu. In the time of Yao, the floodwaters surged to heaven. Yao ordered Gun to regulate the waters, but Gun achieved no success, so he was banished and died. When Shun assumed the regency, he raised up Yu to continue his father's enterprise. Straining his body and agonizing his thoughts, he lived away from home for thirteen years, passing by the gate of his house without entering. Traveling by land, he rode in carriages; traveling by water, he rode in boats; traveling through mud, he rode on sledges; traveling through mountains, he rode on spiked shoes. He traveled to inspect the resources of the earth to determine tributes, as well as the advantages of the mountains and rivers. Thereupon the harms of the waters were brought to an end, the Nine Provinces were harmonized, and the four extremities became habitable. Yao then bestowed upon Yu a dark jade scepter, announcing his accomplishment. When Shun formally took the throne, he appointed Yu as Minister of Works to oversee the hundred regulators. Heaven bestowed the Great Plan with its Nine Divisions, whereby the constant ethical relations were properly arranged. Heaven granted Yu the Text of the Luo: a divine turtle bore writings arrayed upon its back, with numbers extending up to nine, and Yu accordingly ordered them to form the Nine Categories. Shun's son Shangjun was unworthy; Shun recommended Yu to Heaven, having him take his place on the throne. When Shun passed away, the people of the realm did not turn to Shangjun, but turned to Yu. Yu ascended the throne as the Son of Heaven, naming his state the Xia. In accordance with the virtue of Metal, he established his capital at Han, which is present-day Yangdi in Junzhou of Bianliang Circuit, in the region of Yu. Following the Youyu clan, he took the Yin month as the beginning of the year. Ten inches made a foot. In color he favored black; for sacrificial victims he used dark ones; and he took black as his royal emblem. He created music called the Great Xia; 'Xia' means 'great', signifying that he could magnify the virtue of Yao and Shun. He hung a bell, a drum, a stone chime, a handbell, and a rattle drum to receive scholars from the four quarters, saying: 'Let those who would teach us the Way strike the drum; let those who would instruct us in righteousness strike the bell; let those who would inform us of affairs shake the handbell; let those who would speak to us of anxieties strike the chime; and let those who have litigations shake the rattle drum.' Earlier, Shun had divided the realm into twelve provinces; Yu restored them to nine provinces. He collected fine bronze from throughout the realm and cast nine tripods to symbolize the Nine Provinces. In ancient times, the Yellow Emperor made carriages, Shaohao added oxen, and Xi Zhong added horses. Yu ordered Xi Zhong to serve as Master of Carriages, properly setting up banners, flags, streamers, and pennants to distinguish ranks of high and low. In ancient times there were sweet wines and fermented dairy drinks. In Yu's time, Yidi invented alcoholic wine. Yu drank it and found it sweet, but thereupon distanced himself from Yidi and renounced fine wine, saying: 'In later generations, there will certainly be those who lose their states through wine.' Yu entrusted the state's administration to Gaoyao and Yi. Yu married a maiden of the Tushan clan, who gave birth to his son Qi. Yu toured the south and convened the feudal lords at Mount Tu. Inheriting the flourishing age of Tang and Yu, ten thousand states came bearing jade and silk. He convened them again at Kuaiji; the lord of Fangfeng arrived late, and Yu executed him, establishing precedents and standards to pass down to his descendants. Yu had once recommended Yi to Heaven. In the seventh year Yu passed away, having reigned for nine years, at the age of one hundred. Yi yielded the throne and retired to Mount Ji, but the people of the realm did not turn to Yi, turning instead to Qi. Qi then ascended the throne as the Son of Heaven. As for his name Wenming, Cai Shen says: 'This is what the "Tributes of Yu" refers to when saying: "To the east it spread, to the west it reached, to the north and south it extended, and the renown of his teachings [was broadcast everywhere]."'

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"The divine turtle emerged from the Luo": this is present-day Mengjin in Mengzhou of Huaimeng Circuit, in the Shanxi-Hedong Circuit, which is the Mengjin where King Wu of Zhou gathered his forces when subjugating Zhou of Shang, in the region of Ji. The state of the Tushan clan was in present-day Linhao Prefecture of Anfeng Circuit in Huaxi. Kuaiji is present-day Shaoxing Circuit in Yuezhou of Zhedong Circuit, both belonging to the region of Yang. Yu passed away at Kuaiji. Sledges (qiao): Meng Kang says they are shaped like winnowing baskets and travel over mud. Spiked shoes (ju): made of iron, like awl points half an inch long, attached to the underside of shoes so one does not slip when climbing mountains.

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King Qi

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He was the son of Yu, born of the maiden of the Tushan clan. He died after a reign of ten years.

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Taikang

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Son of Qi. Dissolute and idle, he went hunting beyond the Luo River and did not return for a hundred days. Houyi of Youqiong, taking advantage of the people's distress, blocked him at the river. His five younger brothers composed songs lamenting him; these appear in the Book of Documents. He reigned for thirty years, lost his state, and could not return. Houyi enthroned Taikang's younger brother, Zhongkang.

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Zhongkang

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Younger brother of Taikang. Yi enthroned him. Weak and feeble, while Xi and He indulged in wine and dissipation, government issued from Yi. He reigned for fourteen years.

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King Xiang

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Son of Zhongkang. Expelled by Yi, he lost his state and lived in Shangqiu, present-day Guide Prefecture in Henanfu Circuit. He relied on clans of the same surname, the Zhenguan and Zhenxun. Yi set himself up as ruler under the title of Youqiong. Houyi moved from Chu to Qiongshi, and relying on the Xia clan, he took over the administration of Xia. He did not cultivate the people's affairs, indulging in hunting wild beasts across the plains. He discarded the worthy and did not employ them, trusting instead the slandering son of the Boming clan, Han Zhuo. Han Zhuo practiced flatteries within and distributed bribes without, hoodwinking the people while also deceiving Yi. While Yi hastened to a peasant house, the multitude killed Yi and boiled him to feed him to his son; his son could not bear to eat him and was killed at the gate of Qiong. Yi reigned for eight years. Han Zhuo took over Yi's household without changing the title of Youqiong, and fathered Jiao and Yi. Zhuo sent Jiao to kill the Zhenguan and Zhenxun clans and destroy King Xiang of Xia. Xiang's queen was the daughter of the ruler of the state of Youreng, and was just then pregnant; she escaped through a water gate, returned to Youreng, and gave birth to Shaokang. Zhuo placed Jiao at Guo and placed Yi at Ge. When Shaokang grew up, he became Master of Herds in Reng. Jiao sought him, so he fled to Youyu and became Master of the Kitchens. The ruler of Yu gave him two Yao daughters in marriage and enfeoffed him at Lun, with one cheng of land (ten li) and one lü of men (five hundred men). Spreading his virtue, he rallied the Xia multitude. A surviving minister of the Xia, Mi, arrived from the Ge clan, gathered the remaining people of the two states, destroyed Zhuo, and enthroned Shaokang. Shaokang sent his minister Nü'ai to destroy Jiao at Guo, and sent his son Ji Zhu to destroy Yi at Ge. Thereupon Youqiong was extinguished. Zhuo reigned for thirty-two years. Sima Zhen's Suoyin commentary to the Records of the Grand Historian says: 'Wei Zhuangzi in the Zuo Commentary says: "After Emperor Xiang was usurped and killed, the period between under the two clans of Yi and Zhuo spanned roughly thirty to forty years, yet this Basic Annals does not speak of it at all, merely stating that Emperor Xiang died and Shaokang was enthroned, which is exceedingly careless and brief."' Xiang was on the throne for twenty-eight years.

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Shaokang

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Son of Emperor Xiang. He destroyed Zhuo, returned to the old capital, and restored Yu's legacy. The way of Xia was revived and the people were at peace. He reigned for twenty-one years.

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Yue

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Shaokang enfeoffed his youngest son, Wuyu, at Kuaiji, with the title of Yu Yue. Twenty generations later, during the time of King Jing of Zhou, Goujian took the title of king, fought the King of Wu, and defeated Wu at Zuili (present-day Xiuzhou in Jiaxing Circuit of Xixi Circuit, in the region of Yang). Later, Wu destroyed Yue; [earlier] Wu had defeated Yue at Fujiao (Jiaoshan in Lake Tai, Wu Commandery). Goujian made use of the strategies of his ministers Fan Li, Grand Master Zhong, and others, and in the third year of King Yuan of Zhou, he finally destroyed Wu. Yue was later annexed by Chu (Gazetteers).

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The Hereditary House of Goujian: The Shiji states: Emperor Shaokang of the Xia dynasty enfeoffed his concubine's son at Kuaiji in order to maintain the sacrificial rites to Yu. Tattoos on their bodies and cropped hair, cutting through weeds and overgrowth, they built their settlement there. Over twenty generations later came Yunchang. In Yunchang's time, they fought with King Helü of Wu, bearing mutual hatred and raiding each other. When Yunchang died, his son Goujian was enthroned; this was the King of Yue. In his first year, King Helü of Wu heard that Yunchang had died, and at that very moment raised an army to invade Yue. King Goujian of Yue launched a surprise attack on the Wu forces; the Wu forces were defeated at Zuili, and King Helü of Wu was wounded by an arrow (Du Yu said: "South of Jiaxing County in Wu Commandery lies Zuili City"). As Helü was about to die, he told his son Fuchai: "You must never forget Yue!" In his third year, Goujian heard that King Fuchai of Wu was drilling his troops day and night, about to avenge himself on Yue. Yue wished to march against him before Wu had mobilized. Fan Li remonstrated, saying: "It must not be done. Your servant has heard that weapons are instruments of ill omen; war is contrary to virtue; conflict is the base end of affairs. To plot in secret contrary to virtue, to delight in using instruments of ill omen, and to put oneself at risk in what is lowest—the High Lord forbids it, and it will bring no fortune to the one who does it." The King of Yue said: "My mind is made up." He thereupon raised an army. When the King of Wu heard of it, he mobilized all his crack troops to strike Yue, defeating them at Fujiao (Du Yu said: "Fujiao is Jiao Mountain in Lake Tai, Wu County, Wu Commandery"). The King of Yue then retreated with his remaining five thousand soldiers to entrench himself atop Mount Kuaiji (Du Yu said: "Mounting atop Mount Kuaiji"). The King of Wu pursued and besieged him. The King of Yue said to Fan Li: "It is because I did not listen to you that matters have come to this. What shall I do about it?" Li replied: "One who maintains fullness accords with Heaven (Wei Zhao said: "'Accords with Heaven' means modeling upon Heaven. The Way of Heaven fills but does not overflow"); one who stabilizes the toppling accords with humankind (Yu Fan said: "The way of humankind values humility and submissiveness to pastor oneself"); one who regulates affairs conforms to Earth (Wei Zhao said: "If the time has not arrived, it cannot be forced into being; if the matter is not ripe, it cannot be forced to succeed"). Use humble words and generous gifts to present to him; if he refuses, trade yourself to him (Wei Zhao said: "'Trade' means profit; this refers to relinquishing the keys of the treasury and the state, and following him in person")." Goujian said: "Agreed." He then ordered Grand Master Zhong to sue for peace with Wu. Kneeling and kowtowing, [Zhong] said: "Your Majesty's ruined servant Goujian has sent his humble servant Zhong to presume to speak to your attendants: Goujian requests to become your subject, and his wife your concubine." The King of Wu was inclined to grant it. Zixu said to the King of Wu: "Heaven has bestowed Yue upon Wu; do not grant it!" Zhong returned and reported to Goujian. Goujian wanted to kill his wife and children, burn his treasured vessels, and charge into battle to die. Zhong stopped Goujian, saying: "The Grand Chancellor of Wu, Pi, is greedy; he can be lured with profit. Please allow me to go and speak to him." Thereupon Goujian sent Zhong to secretly present beautiful women and treasured vessels to Grand Chancellor Pi of Wu. Pi accepted them and then introduced Grand Master Zhong to the King of Wu. Zhong kowtowed and said: "We beseech Your Great Majesty to pardon Goujian's offense, and he will surrender all his treasured vessels. If unhappily you will not pardon him, Goujian will kill all his wives and children, burn all his treasured vessels, and charge into battle with all five thousand men, where he will surely inflict casualties!" Pi then persuaded the King of Wu, saying: "Yue has submitted to become a subject; if you pardon them, this will be of benefit to the state." The King of Wu was inclined to grant it. Zixu stepped forward to remonstrate: "If you do not destroy Yue now, you will surely regret it later. Goujian is a capable ruler, and Zhong and Li are excellent ministers; if they return to their state, they will bring turmoil." The King of Wu would not listen; in the end he pardoned Yue, withdrew his troops, and returned. When Goujian was trapped at Kuaiji, he sighed deeply and said: "Shall I meet my end here?" Zhong said: "Tang was imprisoned at the Xia Tower; King Wen was confined at Youli; Chong'er of Jin fled to the Di; Xiaobai of Qi fled to Ju. In the end they all became kings and hegemons. Looking at it from this perspective, why should this not turn into good fortune?" Once Wu pardoned Yue, King Goujian of Yue returned to his state. He then emaciated his body and racked his mind, placing a gall bladder by his seat; whether sitting or lying down he would gaze at the gall bladder, and when eating or drinking he would also taste the gall bladder, saying: "Have you forgotten the disgrace of Kuaiji?" He ploughed the fields himself, and his wife wove cloth herself. In eating he did not add meat; in clothing he did not wear double furs. He lowered himself to treat worthy men with respect, was generous in receiving guests, relieved the poor, consoled the bereaved, and shared the toil of the common people. He wished to have Fan Li manage the administration of the state. Li replied: "In matters of arms and armor, Zhong cannot match Li; in pacifying the state and cherishing the common people, Li cannot match Zhong." Thereupon he entrusted the entire state administration to Grand Master Zhong, and sent Fan Li together with Grand Master Zheji to sue for peace and serve as hostages in Wu. After two years, Wu returned Li. In the seven years after returning from Kuaiji, Goujian nurtured his soldiers and people; the soldiers and people wished to be employed to avenge themselves on Wu. Grand Master Feng Tong remonstrated, saying: "The state has only recently escaped ruin and exile. If now we are again bountiful, refurbish equipment, and prepare sharp weapons, Wu will surely take fright; if they take fright, calamity will surely arrive. Furthermore, when a bird of prey strikes, it is sure to conceal its form. Now Wu's army is pressing upon Qi and Jin, and its rancor runs deeper in Chu and Yue; its fame is high throughout the realm, but it truly harms the Zhou royal house. With little virtue but many achievements, it will surely become licentious and boastful. For Yue's strategy, nothing is better than allying with Qi, befriending Chu, and attaching to Jin, while being generous toward Wu. Wu's ambitions are expansive, so it will surely make light of battle; thus we can align their strength, have the three states attack it, and Yue, taking advantage of its exhaustion, will be able to overcome it." Goujian said: "Excellent!" Two years later, the King of Wu was about to invade Qi. Zixu remonstrated, saying: "It must not be done. Your servant has heard that Goujian does not eat dishes of multiple flavours, and shares hardship and pleasure with his people; if this man does not die, he will surely become a disaster for our state. Wu has Yue as a disease of the vital organs, whereas Qi is to Wu but an itch and scabies. May Your Majesty lay aside Qi and deal first with Yue." The King of Wu would not listen, and thereupon invaded Qi, defeating them at Ailing. He captured Gao and Guo of Qi and returned, rebuking Zixu. Zixu said: "Your Majesty should not rejoice." The King was enraged. Zixu wished to kill himself, but the King heard of it and stopped him. Grand Master Zhong of Yue said: "Your servant observes that the governance of the King of Wu has grown arrogant; please let us test it by borrowing grain to divine their intent." They requested to borrow grain; the King of Wu wished to give it, but Zixu remonstrated against giving it. The King gave it nonetheless. Yue was secretly delighted. Zixu said: "The King does not listen to remonstrance; three years hence, will Wu not be reduced to ruins?" When Grand Chancellor Pi heard of this, he repeatedly disputed with Zixu over policies regarding Yue, and took the opportunity to slander Zixu, saying: "Wu Yuan's outward appearance is loyal, but in truth he is a cruel man; he gave no thought to his own father and brother, so how could he give thought to Your Majesty? Previously, when Your Majesty wished to invade Qi, Yuan vehemently remonstrated; yet afterward when there was success, on this account he now resents Your Majesty. If Your Majesty does not take precautions against Wu Yuan, Yuan will surely cause rebellion." Together with Feng Tong, he plotted to slander him before the King. The King at first did not comply, but sent Zixu on an envoy mission to Qi; hearing that he had entrusted his son to the Bao clan, the King became greatly enraged and said: "Wu Yuan has indeed deceived Us and intends to rebel!" He sent a man to bestow the sword Zhulou upon Zixu so that he would commit suicide. Zixu laughed heartily and said: "I caused your father to become hegemon, and I also established you. At first you wished to divide the state of Wu in half to give to me, but I did not accept it. Now you instead execute me based on slander! Alas, alas! One person indeed cannot stand alone!" He said to the messenger: "You must take my eyes and place them above the eastern gate of Wu, so that I may watch the Yue army enter!" Thereupon Wu entrusted the administration to Pi. Three years later, Goujian summoned Fan Li and said: "Wu has already killed Zixu, and flatterers are numerous; can we strike?" He replied: "Not yet." In the spring of the following year, the King of Wu went north to meet the feudal lords at Huangchi; the crack troops of the state of Wu accompanied the King, and only the aged, the weak, and the Crown Prince remained behind to guard it. Goujian again asked Fan Li, and Li said: "It is possible now." Thereupon he mobilized two thousand sailors accustomed to currents, forty thousand trained soldiers, six thousand "gentlemen" (Wei Zhao said: "'Gentlemen' are those close to the king who have ambition and conduct, like what Wu calls 'men of quality' and Qi calls 'knights'." Yu Fan said: "This means the ruler nurtured them like sons"), and a thousand royal guards to attack Wu. The Wu forces were defeated, and they subsequently killed the Crown Prince of Wu. Wu sent an urgent report to the King; the King was just then meeting the feudal lords at Huangchi, and fearing that the world would hear of it, he kept it secret. After the King of Wu had concluded the covenant at Huangchi, he sent men with generous gifts to sue for peace with Yue. Yue calculated that it was not yet able to destroy Wu, and so made peace with Wu. Four years later, Yue attacked Wu again. The soldiers and people of Wu were exhausted, and their light and elite troops had all perished in Qi and Jin; Yue dealt Wu a great defeat, and thereupon remained and besieged them for three years. The Wu forces were defeated, and Yue then once again confined the King of Wu atop Mount Gusu. The King of Wu sent Gongsun Xiong (Yu Fan said: "A grand master of Wu") bared to the waist, crawling forward on his knees to sue for peace with the King of Yue, saying: "Your isolated servant Fuchai dares to reveal his innermost heart. In past days, I once offended you at Kuaiji, yet Fuchai did not dare to disobey your commands, and was able to make peace with Your Majesty and return. Now Your Majesty has lifted your jade feet to execute your isolated servant; your isolated servant will only obey your command, yet wonders whether you might also wish to pardon your isolated servant's offense just as at Kuaiji?" Goujian could not bear it and wished to grant it. Fan Li said: "In the affair at Kuaiji, Heaven bestowed Yue upon Wu, but Wu did not take it; now Heaven bestows Wu upon Yue, how could Yue go against Heaven? Furthermore, Your Majesty's rising early for court and retiring late—was it not on account of Wu? Plotting for twenty-two years, can you abandon it in a single morning? Moreover, if Heaven gives and one does not take, one will instead receive misfortune; 'the rule for carving an axe handle is not far to seek.' Has Your Majesty forgotten the distress at Kuaiji?" Goujian said: "I wish to heed your words, but I cannot bear to face his messenger." Fan Li then drummed the advance of the troops, saying: "The King has already entrusted the administration to me, his officer (Yu Fan said: "'Officer' is Li referring to himself"). Messenger, depart! If not, you shall incur punishment." The Wu messenger departed in tears. Goujian took pity on him, and sent someone to tell the King of Wu: "I shall place Your Majesty at Yongdong, ruling over a hundred households (Du Yu said: "Yongdong is an island in the Eastern Sea within Gouzhang County, Kuaiji")." The King of Wu declined, saying: "I am old and cannot serve Your Majesty." He then committed suicide, covering his face and saying: "I have no face with which to see Zixu!" The King of Yue then buried the King of Wu and executed Grand Chancellor Pi. Having pacified Wu, Goujian led his army north across the Huai River, meeting the feudal lords of Qi and Jin at Xuzhou, and presented tribute to the Zhou royal court. King Yuan of Zhou sent an envoy to bestow sacrificial meat upon Goujian and appoint him as hegemon. At that time, the troops of Yue moved without hindrance east of the Yangzi and Huai rivers; the feudal lords all offered congratulations, and he was proclaimed hegemon. Fan Li then departed; from Qi, he sent a letter to Grand Master Zhong, saying: "When the flying birds are exhausted, the good bow is stowed; when the cunning hare dies, the running hound is boiled. As a man, the King of Yue has a long neck and a bird's beak; one can share hardship with him, but one cannot share pleasure with him. Why do you not depart?" Having seen the letter, Zhong pleaded illness and did not attend court. Someone slandered Zhong, saying he was about to cause rebellion. The King of Yue then bestowed a sword upon Zhong, saying: "You taught Us seven strategies for invading Wu; We used three of them and defeated Wu, and four remain with you. Test them for Me on the former kings in the afterlife!" Zhong thereupon committed suicide. When Goujian died, his son King Shiyu was enthroned. Five generations later, King Wuqiang attacked Chu; King Wei of Chu attacked Yue, killed King Wuqiang, and extinguished the state (Shiji).

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釋氏稽古略 — Classical Chinese