北山錄 1.9

The Venerable Ruist, acting as a Ruist, roused himself to fine renown (The Venerable is an elder. One who is old, possesses the Way, and is valued by his contemporaries is called venerable. The so-called "devoting one's will to esteeming conduct, departing from the world and avoiding heterodoxy, possessing the style of high antiquity" refers to a gentleman of the mountain valleys, not what ordinary people favor. To rouse is to strike. Fine is beautiful). The assembly of Ruists approached him and admired his instruction (Assembly means the crowd. To approach means to go near. Because the Venerable Ruist had broad knowledge and fine excellence, the assembly of Ruists approached him to study and learn. This evaluates the admirable nature of those who travel, dwell, and love learning along the way of worldly teaching). I, this petty youth, having some doubt about the first beginning of the cosmos, bowed twice and conveyed my sentiments (I, this petty youth, is self-effacing. Having some doubt means being uncertain. Cosmos means heaven and earth. First beginning means the initial inception. This means that having doubts about the initial division of heaven and earth, I bowed twice and expressed my feelings). The Venerable Ruist said: "How rich is your inquiry! (Rich means abundant and grand). I know the person from the vast and turbid origin of heaven and earth (Vast and turbid describes the vast, boundless, and indistinct state before division). It is brilliantly clear! (Brilliantly clear means plainly understood, like saying the three luminaries shine brightly). Sit down, and I shall tell you (To sit means to be seated. Because he had risen to pose the question, he had him sit back down to show him). The Changes has the Taiji, which generated the Two Modes (The Gouming jue states: "The Changes has five Tais. First is Taiyi, where qi and form are not yet divided. Second is Taichu, where the primordial qi sprouts. Third is Taishi, the beginning of physical form. Fourth is Taisu, where physical form transforms to have substance. Fifth is Taiji, where physical form and substance are already complete." From the Taiji were generated heaven and earth, the Two Modes of the clear and the turbid). In its first inception before any sign, it was surging and formless, vast and cavernous; the clear and turbid were of one principle, hundun without form (The character hong is pronounced hu and kong; it describes vast waters. Inception means its beginning. The Huainanzi states: "When heaven and earth were not yet formed, it was surging and formless, cavernous and indistinct"; all of these speak of form and shape not yet being divided. Hundun describes the state before opening and penetrating). It was near the time when the primordial qi in its primordial chaos sprouted and began to provide sustenance (Near means reaching. To provide means to assist. Primordial chaos is the qi of the chaotic origin; this is from the Zhuangzi). Thereupon Pangu was born in its midst, living for eighteen thousand years (Before heaven and earth were divided, it was like a chicken's egg. Once the clear and turbid showed their signs, they were called the Two Modes. The clear qi became heaven, the turbid qi became earth, and the harmonious qi became humankind; these are the Three Powers. Then Pangu was born in their midst and ruled for eighteen thousand years). Heaven and earth split open: heaven daily grew one zhang higher, earth daily grew one zhang thicker, and Pangu daily grew one zhang taller. His head reached the extreme east, his feet the extreme west, his left hand the extreme south, his right hand the extreme north. Opening his eyes made daybreak, closing his eyes made night; his exhalation made heat, his inhalation made cold; his blowing breath formed wind and clouds, and the sound he emitted formed thunder (Once heaven and earth split open, heaven daily grew one zhang higher and earth daily grew one zhang thicker. Pangu's four limbs were extraordinarily large. Extreme means reaching the limit. Daybreak means brightness). The four seasons moved therein, and the myriad things were born therein. As for the greatness of the eight expanses and nine regions, who could match its abundance? (The eight expanses are the four directions and four corners. The nine regions are the nine provinces, or the eight directions and the center). As for the venerability of the Three Sovereigns and Five Periods, who could come before them? (The Three Sovereigns are Fuxi, Shennong, and Huangdi. The Five Periods are metal, wood, water, fire, and earth: Fuxi was the wood period, Shennong the fire period, Huangdi the earth period, Jintian the metal period, and Zhuanxu the water period; through the mutual generation of the five phases, the receipt of the mandate through a hundred generations can be known). In the times of remote antiquity, people roasted grain and tore apart pork, drank by cupping water from hollowed-out earth, and drummed on earthen drums with clod beaters (To roast means to burn with fire. In middle antiquity there were not yet cauldrons and steamers; they chose grain and tore meat, placing them on heated stones to eat them. A hollowed vessel means digging the ground to make a vessel. To cup is pronounced bu and hou, scooping with the hand. Clod is pronounced kuai; it refers to a drumstick, using clods of earth as drumsticks). In winter they lived in dugouts and caves, and in summer they lived in nests of piled wood (In cold they piled earth, and in heat they gathered firewood to live upon). There was not yet cooking by fire: they ate the fruits of grasses and trees, the meat of birds and beasts, drank their blood, and swallowed their fur (The Wenxuan says: swallowed means devoured). There was not yet silk or hemp; they clothed themselves in feathers and skins (This was the time of high antiquity). Later sages arose, and only then did they cultivate the benefits of fire (Cultivate means to order). They cast metals and combined earth (Casting and firing implements and vessels) to make towers, pavilions, palace halls, doors, and windows; they roasted (placing on fire), scorched (boiling in caldrons), and broiled (skewering over fire); they made sweet spirits and fermented curds (steaming and brewing them; curds means fermented vinegar-beer; vinegar is pronounced cu, and beer is pronounced zai; some editions lack this sentence). They processed silk and hemp to make cloth and silk fabrics, so as to nourish the living, bury the dead, and serve the ghosts and spirits. From remote antiquity down to the present, the years and generations cannot be fully recorded. After Fuxi, there were altogether more than four hundred thousand years. Transformations were fashioned and completed: becoming rulers and ministers, becoming lords and commoners (Commoners is a term for the lowly). Calamities and benefits, rises and falls (Calamity means loss)—former Ruists recorded them (To record means to register), and later Ruists inherited them, vast and multifaceted, not to be exhausted in a single day (To exhaust means to finish. The above is what the Venerable Ruist related concerning the opening of heaven and earth). At the banks of the Fushui River, a rustic fellow of North Mountain turned his back on worldly splendor and departed from convention for a long time (Rustic fellow is a humble term. Shenqing, styled Lingyu, had the surname Zhang. He was a native of Changming County in Mianzhou. Three brothers went forth from the household; the master was the second, uniquely outstanding. Upāsaka-turned-preceptor Fayun of Kaiyuan Monastery in Mianzhou was his teacher. At the end of the Jianzhong era, he passed away at Huiyi Monastery in Zizhou. He composed the Fahua xuanjian in ten fascicles, the Shishi nianzhi in thirty fascicles, the Lüshu yaojue in ten fascicles, Recorded Sayings in ten fascicles, as well as Initial Instructions for the Two Assemblies, Calming the Mind and Purifying Contemplation, resolutions on the Abhidharmakośa, and other treatises and commentaries totaling over a hundred fascicles). Setting his intent on antiquity, his knowledge was nevertheless not vast; guiding his conduct along the Way, he was yet obstructed when it came to its ultimate directions. Thus, when beginning his studies, he was placed at the tail of the local school (A school is an academy. The Rites says: "Townships had academies, and neighborhoods had schools"). Hearing the Ruist teachings, he delighted in them, saying: 'How great are the words of Ru!' When he altered his vocation to that of the Buddhist teaching, upon wading onto its shores, he was awestruck, as if gazing at the Milky Way without boundary—how could there be any weariness or dissatisfaction? (To alter means to change. Shores means the margins. The Zhuangzi says: 'He was startled and awestruck, as if at the boundless Milky Way.' Weariness means satiety, and dissatisfaction means resentment). He only worried about not having heard it earlier, saying: 'How was this?' It was said: 'The sage of Tianzhu' (Tianzhu is India).

[The sage is the Buddha.] He said: When the previous kalpa had disintegrated, heaven and earth were already empty. From emptiness it formed again, and this kalpa had its beginning. (The formation, abiding, disintegration, and emptiness of a world each last twenty kalpas. From a human lifespan of ten years, every hundred years it increases by one year, up to eighty-four thousand years; then every hundred years it decreases by one year down to ten years, which is called one kalpa. Thus, formation, abiding, disintegration, and emptiness total eighty kalpas, revolving in an endless cycle.) At that time, in the emptiness there was a subtle wind. The wind gradually grew fierce. Abiding beneath this realm, it verily was the wind circle. ("Fierce" means violent. "Verily" means indeed. The Treatise on the Establishment of the World Abhidharma says: After the world has been empty for twenty kalpas and is about to form, there arise the vairambha winds, blowing upon it to form the wind circle. It resides at the very bottom, nine hundred million sixty thousand yojanas thick and one billion two hundred thirty-four million five hundred yojanas wide.) Great clouds ascended into the sky and poured down rain like axle-trees, accumulating upon that wind circle and congealing to form the water circle. The very top of the water circle solidified into gold, like the skin that forms when milk rests; this is the golden circle. (Beneath the ground, one hundred million sixty thousand [yojanas] are formed of pure gold. The remaining eighty thousand above are a mixture of the seven realms, such as gold, silver, copper, and iron. The Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya says: The water circle turns solid, as milk congeals when cooling.) Once the three circles were formed, rain flew from the sky and poured upon the golden circle, being both wide and deep. (The raindrops were like cart axles, ceasing neither day nor night, like a river pouring down for countless thousands of years. The water was two hundred million forty thousand yojanas deep, one billion two hundred thirty-four million five hundred yojanas wide, and thirty-six billion ten million three hundred fifty yojanas in circumference.) The wind struck this water, its purity and turbidity taking different substances, forming the Brahma worlds and the heavens dwelling in emptiness. (There is a wind named "grasping and holding" that blows to bring the world to completion. There is also a wind named "circling round" that rises to form the two continents of the east and west. Again, there is a wind named "pipa" that rises to form the southern continent. Again, there is a wind named "four directions and four corners" that rises to form the northern continent. First the Brahma world forms; due to past causes and conditions, the dwelling place of the Brahma King is as large as one set of four continents. At this time, the Brahma King was born here, and the Brahma sons were also born. The gods of the six heavens of the desire realm were like awakening from a dream, suddenly remembering past events. At that time, the gods gathered in groups, filled the expanse, and walked about, all saying: "In the past, this place had Mount Sumeru, the City of Beautiful Views, the Garden of Harsh Words, and so forth." Thus did they all remember.) It formed precious stones; it formed mountains and seas; it formed lands; it formed palaces; and the myriad things were intermingled. (If the wind forms a mountain in ascending succession, the mountain then has a peak. If the wind arises either straight or slanted, the mountain's form is either flat or towering upon the great earth. Mountain streams, flat and recessed, cliff caves, and perforations all result from the different forces of the wind. "Pin" means types; "cuo" means intermingled.) When the domains were first formed, gods who died in the upper realms were reborn below. Their bodies possessed flying light, their feet moved as if riding the clouds; they drank not, nor did they eat, and the span of their years was countless. (Some gods, having abandoned retribution in [the upper realms], took birth within this; furthermore, there were gods who, upon the end of their lifespan, were born in the four continents to receive human birth. At that time, these beings took joy and delight as their food, abiding in reliance upon joy and delight, with mind-made manifested bodies, abiding in natural radiance, peace, and bliss, flying about in mid-air. At this time, the sun and moon had not yet appeared in the world, the stars and constellations did not yet exist, day and night were not differentiated, and years and ages were not distinguished. There were no such things as male and female, father and mother, or surnames and names.) Down to when the taste of the earth was like maltose, the crust of the earth was extremely sweet, forest creepers spread fragrant scents, and rice grew luxuriantly. (At that time, the great ocean suddenly rose and suddenly fell, opening passages for rivers and springs. Where the water receded, there emerged earth-fat, extremely sweet and delicious in flavor, which grew to cover the ground, complete with delightful color, scent, touch, and taste, like refined honey. Furthermore, there was an earth crust, which all people ate. After the earth crust was exhausted, they next ate forest creepers. After the forest creepers were exhausted, there was naturally grown non-glutinous rice, overflowing with fragrance and flavor.) By eating these four, they brought disaster upon their bodies: their forms grew heavy and dense, their radiance vanished, and the sun, moon, and stars appeared from this time forth. (At that time, one person smelled the fragrance of this earth-fat and gave rise to a mind of desire and attachment. Pinching the great flavor with fingers, he smelled and tasted it, knowing its sweetness and excellence. The rest of the people followed his example. Indeed, because of the taste of the earth, their bodies gradually grew heavy and dense, unable to fly, and their bodily radiance was lost and vanished. Having lost their radiance, the world became dark, whereupon the sun and moon were born, and the stars appeared and became fixed.) Excreting defilements and channeling breath, the human way was established. ("Juan" means eliminating; it also means clarity: there were the matters of the greater and lesser impurities. Channeling breath refers to matters of defiled desire between male and female.) Resentment and miserliness having sprouted, love and desire arose, and fathers and sons came to be. ("Fen" is wrath; "lin" is stinginess and greed. Due to having love and stinginess, greed subsequently arose; being violated by others, wrath arose from this. Their complexions became ugly, their merit grew scant, and their spiritual powers were lost.) Rulers and ministers came to be; domains were demarcated and states divided, and the array of realms arose. Marking our borders and hamlets, trade and goods grew abundant; warding off wickedness and punishing crimes, penal laws were instituted. ("Xian" means preventing; "pi" means laws. These are all the foundations of establishing a state.) From this Jambudvīpa (this refers to a continent's land, named after the jambu tree) to a billion Jambudvīpas; from these four continents to a billion sets of four continents (the Eastern Pūrvavideha is superior in offerings; the Western Aparagodānīya uses cattle for trade; the Northern Uttarakuru has an upright and wholesome mind. These are the four continents of the world), extending to the Great Iron Ring Mountains ("Ju" means reaching; they are encircled by the Iron Ring Mountains), all were formed at the same time, constituting the realm of one Great Sage. (This great chiliocosm is together the domain of one Buddha's royal transformation.) As for when human lifespan gradually decreases, decreasing down to ten years, and having decreased, increases again, increasing up to eighty thousand years: at first, at twenty thousand years, there is an Iron-Wheel-Turning King; next, at forty thousand years, there is a Copper-Wheel-Turning King; next, at sixty thousand years, there is a Silver-Wheel-Turning King; and later, at eighty thousand years, there is a Golden-Wheel-Turning King. In this manner, they unify one Jambudvīpa, up to two, three, and four continents. (The Iron-Wheel King unifies one continent; the Copper, two continents; the Silver, three continents; and the Gold unifies four continents.) We are now in the ninth decrement of the Auspicious Kalpa. (In the Auspicious Kalpa, a thousand Buddhas appear; we are now in the ninth decreasing kalpa.) The remaining eleven kalpas may be known accordingly. At the end of one decrement: at thirty years famine arises; at twenty years, pestilence; at ten years, weapons and war arise. These are the small three calamities. (When it decreases to thirty years, there is the calamity of famine.)

[... for seven years, seven months, and seven days. Because the chaotic wind arises and blows upon their quarters, causing the seasons to lose their regular order and the grains to fail to mature. At [a life expectancy of] twenty years, there is the calamity of pestilence, due to evil ghosts and spirits harming humanity for seven months and seven days. At [a life expectancy of] ten years, there is the calamity of weapons; they slaughter one another, possessing only knives and cudgels with which to adorn themselves, ceasing after seven days and seven nights.]
When the kalpa has been destroyed—(When the world is about to be destroyed, the devas transform their bodies to resemble rhinoceroses, proclaiming three times day and night, ordering [beings] to cultivate the samādhi without thought-conception, which is the most sublime joy. After life ends, they are reborn in the Heaven of Abhāsvara. Later, when the disks of seven suns arise in the sky, the great earth and Mount Sumeru all burst into flames; burning simultaneously and intensely, their heat sucks dry the water-disk below, like ghee or oil, completely consuming everything)—the disaster of fire blazes through the nine heavens (the nine heavens are the six heavens of the desire realm together with the three heavens of the first dhyāna);
the whirling gale sweeps away the third dhyāna (the whirling gale is the name of a wind; "sweeps away" means completely devastates; the disaster of wind reaches the Heaven of Śubhakṛtsna);
and the water rushes violently in their midst (the pronunciation of *tang* [湯] is *shang*; it describes the rushing flow of water. The disaster of water reaches the second dhyāna, hence it is said to be "in their midst." There are seven calamities of fire and one calamity of water; seven calamities of water and one calamity of wind).
Once the myriad transformations have ended, there is the emptiness following destruction (destruction lasts twenty kalpas: nineteen kalpas destroy sentient beings, and one kalpa destroys the insentient. From here, emptiness lasts twenty kalpas).
Once this emptiness is complete, it marks the beginning of the subsequent kalpa (after emptiness, there are again twenty kalpas of formation; after formation, there are again twenty kalpas of abiding).
The sūtra says: Formation, abiding, destruction, and emptiness each last twenty kalpas, making up one great kalpa (as explained in sūtras such as the *Saddharmasmṛtyupasthāna-sūtra*).
Indeed, for loftiness and solidity, nothing is greater than heaven and earth ("lofty" means high; "solid" means thick);
for long endurance, nothing surpasses antiquity and the present.
How magnificent is the Great Sage! He knows the beginning of heaven and earth; he knows the end of heaven and earth. He knows the height of heaven; he knows the thickness of earth. He knows the brilliance of the three luminaries (the three luminaries are the sun, moon, and stars; "brilliance" means brightness);
he knows the cycles of years, seasons, and kalpas; he knows the passing of antiquity; he knows the coming of the present.
For penetrating vision, nothing compares to the divine eye (śrāvakas see one thousand worlds; pratyekabuddhas see two thousand worlds; bodhisattvas see three thousand worlds; the Buddha sees the great trichiliocosm);
for acute hearing, nothing compares to the divine ear (what is heard corresponds to the numbers for the divine eye);
for powerful recollection, nothing compares to [the knowledge of] past lives (the supernormal knowledge of past lives: recollecting events of immeasurable past kalpas).
Possessing such penetrating insight, there is nothing in the realm that is not fully comprehended. Therefore, that which is beyond the reach of heaven's canopy and unillumined by the sun and moon (such as the Peak of Existence, Avīci, etc.),
where frost and dew do not fall (where the four seasons do not shift),
and where boats and carriages cannot carry (what is attained spontaneously, such as the realms of the Buddhas),
are yet fully reached by his mind and eye (the eye clearly sees them; the mind thoroughly reaches them).
How much more so a mere snail's horn of a corner! (Of old, King Ying of Wei made a covenant with the Lord of Tian. The Lord of Tian betrayed it. King Ying was enraged and about to attack him. Master Hui heard of this and went to see Dai Jinren. Dai Jinren was a worthy of Liang. He said: "Is Your Majesty aware of what is called a snail's horn?" He said, "Yes. On the left horn of the snail there is a state called the Chu clan, and on the right horn of the snail there is a state called the Man clan. From time to time they contend for territory and wage war, leaving tens of thousands of corpses, pursuing the routed for fifteen days before returning." The king said: "Alas! Such words are fictitious!" [Dai Jinren] said: "Allow your servant to demonstrate its reality to Your Majesty. In the four directions, above and below, is there a limit?" He said: "There is no limit." He said: "Knowing that one roams in the limitless, when one returns to accessible states—referring to the coming and going—is it not like a mustard seed on Mount Tai, or a single hair on a horse's body? What is the use of contending over it?")
Alas, living in this midst, am I a vinegar-gnat (a tiny insect on vinegar),
or a cicada? (Also named *xiangu*, also named mole cricket, also named stone rat.)
How could I know the vast expanse of the cosmos and the eternal duration of years and kalpas? I merely trust sincerely in the Sage (lamenting that one is oneself identical to what is minute and dim, how could one know the vastness and distance of heaven and earth? One merely places sincere trust in what the Sage has spoken).
Indeed, if years accumulate to make millions, how could millions of years not make a kalpa? If earth accumulates to make states and domains, how could states and domains not make a world? Tang questioned Ge, saying: "Do the zenith, the nadir, and the eight directions have an extremity?" Ge said: "Beyond the limitless there is again the limitless" (these words are in the *Zhuangzi*. The intent was to ask whether worlds have an end. The reply was that worlds in the ten directions are limitless and endless; outside of this world there are yet other worlds. This differs slightly from *Liezi*). Ran You questioned Zhongni, saying: "Can the time before heaven and earth existed be known?" Zhongni said: "Antiquity is just like the present" (Ran Qiu's intent was to ask about before creation. The reply was that heaven and earth are destroyed and form anew, diminish and rise again). From this we know that the ancient wise kings and the former Ruists were not without knowledge; they merely understood it in silence.
Indeed, climbing Mount Meng, Lu appears small (Mount Meng is east of the district of Lu);
climbing Mount Tai, the world appears small. How much more so for what is higher than Mount Tai! (Mount Tai is the Eastern Peak; climbing it one can gaze upon all under heaven. One knows that all under heaven is not vast; how much more so for what is still higher! Hence the four seas and the nine provinces are like the tip of a fine hair attached to a horse's body.)
It is truly not in vain! Anciently, the Yellow Emperor (of the Dihong clan) napped by day and dreamed of traveling to the realm of the Huaxu clan (there is a state named Huaxu, west of Yanzhou and north of Taizhou).
He did not know how many tens of millions of li this realm was separated from his own capital ("this" means separated; "capital" means the center),
for it was beyond the reach of boats, carriages, and foot-power. That realm had no teachers or leaders; people were spontaneously wise. They had no dread of death, no premature demise; they knew neither attachment to self nor detachment from objects, and thus harbored neither love nor hatred. They knew neither rebellion nor compliance, and thus had neither profit nor harm. They treasured nothing whatsoever and feared nothing whatsoever (these are all matters of the customs and morals of the Huaxu realm).
When the Yellow Emperor awoke from his slumber, he was pleased as if he had gained something (his spirit roamed in the dream, and upon waking he felt as if he had gained something).
When I investigate and consider that realm, it resembles the continent of Uttarakuru! (That is the Northern Continent, Uttarakuru. The *Abhidharmasaṃgītisaṅgīti-śāstra* says: "In that realm there are no instructors. Food and clothing arise naturally. Their lifespan is fixed at a thousand years. Women are not given in marriage, nor do men take wives. If lustful desire arises, they gaze intently upon that woman...")

If a woman sees a man, they look at each other and immediately go to another place, where a mañjūṣaka tree instantly covers them over. The act of desire is then fulfilled. If it does not cover them over, they know that they are blood relatives and do not dare to violate [the taboo]. When a child is born, it is not breastfed but set down at a crossroads; passers-by put their fingers into its mouth for it to suckle. Within seven days it is fully grown, and without hatred or love they transform following the natural course. Shenqing investigated what [the Yellow Emperor] dreamt, and it seems to compare to the northern continent). It lies outside the Nine Realms (the nine regions of mankind), in the midst of the vast sea (amid the great sea to the north of Mount Sumeru). It was not something known to Tianlao, Limu, or Taishanji (all three being ministers of the Yellow Emperor). Dihong (Emperor Hong) stilled his mind and subdued his body, seeking the way to nourish life and govern things; hence his spirit wandered there. If it were not the northern continent, it would not match what he dreamt. Therefore, the lesser sages of our teaching (referring to practitioners of the small and intermediate vehicles) [know] eighty thousand [kalpas] each of past kalpas and future kalpas, and see and hear two thousand worlds (seeing things of two thousand worlds with the divine eye, hearing sounds of two thousand worlds with the divine ear, and so on). Intermediate sages can know three thousand [worlds] (referring to the bodhisattva vehicle). The Great Awakened One, however, exhausts [all] (exhausts without remainder; there is nothing not known, nothing not seen). The sun, moon, and stars are arrayed in the empty firmament (arrayed means shining brightly; empty firmament means the space realm). The sun and moon know neither rise nor fall (they are ever in the sky; but they revolve around the four continents, and because Mount Sumeru blocks them, there are dark and bright [periods]); the stars know neither wane nor wax. In a single day and night, they illuminate the four great continents (the sun and moon constantly illuminate two continents; as when the sun newly rises on the southern continent, it is midday on the eastern continent, dusk on the northern continent, and midnight on the western continent. When it is noon on the southern continent, it is dusk on the eastern continent, midnight on the northern continent, and sunrise on the [western] continent. When the sun sets on the southern continent, it is midnight on the eastern continent, noon on the western continent, and dawn on the northern continent. The other continents follow this analogy). Tending south or north, they divide cold and heat (in summer the sun is closer to the north and the moon closer to the south; in winter the moon is closer to the north and the sun closer to the south; spring and autumn are equal). Held by the power of the wind, they neither stop nor fall (all are supported and rotated in the air by the vailambha winds without falling; below halfway up Mount Sumeru). Above dwell the various devas. The length of their nights and dawns corresponds quite closely to the equinoxes, solstices, beginnings, and closures of the water clocks and gnomons of this land (this is explained in the treatises of the Western Country such as the *Abhidharmakośa* and *Satyasiddhi*. The equinoxes are the spring and autumn equinoxes; the solstices are the winter and summer solstices; the beginning of spring is called “beginning”; the beginning of winter is called “closure”). The sun is fifty-one yojanas across, the moon fifty yojanas; the stars are at largest one yojana, and at smallest one krośa (a yojana is also called a yujana; here it means the journey a sage-king should travel in one day, either thirty li or forty; a krośa is here translated as the ground of a cow’s lowing, two li; in the Hīnayāna, one yojana is sixteen li; tiny means very small). Their lower faces make use of fire jewels and water jewels (make use of means employ; the fire jewel is the sun, and the water jewel is the moon). Yet in the years of Lu, stars fell like rain (on the fifth day of the fourth month in the seventh year of Duke Zhuang of Lu, they fell like rain); and in the capital of Song, the fallen stones numbered five (in the *Zuozhuan*, the first month of the sixth year of Duke Xi of Lu: fallen stones at Song were five; all say these were falling stars). These were sudden omens and anomalies. The Ruists say that outside the southeastern seas (in the *Huainanzi*, the *Jishengfu*, and so forth), in the midst of the Great Wilderness and between the Sweet Springs, lies the state of Xihe. There is a woman named Xihe, who gave birth to ten suns and constantly bathes the suns in the Sweet Springs. In the age of Yao, ten suns rose together, and he commanded Yi to shoot them (Yi was the ancient title of an archery official). Nine birds dropped dead to the ground (the crows within the suns). When utmost virtue sprouts forth, the sun and moon are like joined jade disks, and the five planets are like a string of pearls (the five planets are the Year Star [Jupiter], the Dazzling Deluder [Mars], the Great White [Venus], the Hour Star [Mercury], and the Guard Star [Saturn]; when there is a ruler of utmost virtue, the sun and moon are like joined jade disks). The host of stars moves from east to west, while the sun and moon run counter to heaven and move toward the east (the host of stars turns rightward with the celestial plate, from east to west; the sun and moon go against the celestial plate, from west to east). Taihao drew the eight trigrams (Fuxi). Communicating with the spiritual and luminous, he made written tallies to replace knotted cords. Nüwa patched the sky and established the celestial poles. Gonggong and Zhuanxu vied to be emperor; Gonggong buttressed his head against Mount Buzhou, breaking the pillar of heaven and snapping the cord of earth. Thus the heavens leaned toward the northwest, where the sun, moon, and stars incline; and the earth did not fill the southeast, where the hundred rivers and torrents return (the hundred rivers all return to the xun [southeast] direction). Yang Zhu said: “The affairs of primeval antiquity are obliterated; who could record them? (Record means to chronicle; their obliteration leaves nothing to record.) The affairs of the Three Sovereigns seem to exist, yet seem lost. The affairs of the Five Emperors seem like waking, yet seem like dreaming. The affairs of the Three Kings are partly hidden and partly apparent (not necessarily complete and fully provided).” Now, with Yangzi’s discernment (discernment means distinguishing), where can I turn to verify them? (Verify means to trust as true.) Zhongni said: “For the Five Emperors, one relies on explanations; for the Three Kings, one relies on standards.” This means that what is far off can only be known through spoken explanations, whereas what is near was cultivated through laws and measures (matters already past can only be known through spoken words, their truth and falsehood lacking verification; the Three Kings being close to recent antiquity, their laws and measures may be followed, yet whether they are fitting or not is uncertain). In the Central Kingdom, among the summits and heights of the realm under heaven, none was ever greater than the hills of Kunlun (Mount Kunlun: according to the *Shanhaijing*, it is where the Yellow River originates; Zhang Qian of the *Hanshu* sought it but did not find it). Above are the clouds of the five directions, and below are the waves of five colours. None but great men, spirits, and immortals come and go there. Thus Huangdi climbed it, gazed south, and returned (Xuanyuan). King Mu feasted the Queen Mother at the Jasper Pool (the Jasper Pool is on Mount Kunlun; King Mu of Zhou gathered and feasted with the Queen Mother there; the Queen Mother wore a sheng-crown, had a leopard’s tail and tiger’s teeth, and presided over the ghosts of pestilence among mortals); only from there did he descend—how towering, exhausting the power of creation! (This refers to Mount Kunlun.) Yet the Śākyan lineage specifically proclaims Mount Sumeru for its greatness. That mountain rises eighty thousand yojanas out of the sea water; its height and breadth are equal, and it is formed of the four jewels (height means tallness; breadth means width; the four jewels are yellow gold to the east, vaiḍūrya to the south, white silver to the west, and sphaṭika jewel to the north). On its lower four sides are terraces, the uppermost of which contains the palaces of the Four Great Heavenly Kings (below are the three heavens of Constant Intoxication, Garland-Bearing, and Firm-Hand). They serve as the outer bastion for Śakra, defending against the asuras.

The summit of Meru is eighty thousand [yojanas] square (its upper surface is eighty thousand yojanas across). It is flat as a whetstone, its paths soft as silk floss (a whetstone is a polishing stone; silk floss is cotton batting). This is the land where Emperor Śakra has his capital; on each of the four sides, eight heavens pay court to the central palace. These are called the Thirty-Three Heavens (on the four sides of Mount Sumeru there are eight heavens each; in the centre is the Hall of Good Dharma where Emperor Śakra dwells and the various gods pay court to him; in all there are thirty-three heavens, all of which are subsumed under the single heaven of Trāyastriṃśa). The various mountains in the ocean are mostly homes to terrestrial deities; these are indeed the capital cities of the Four Heavenly Kings. Hence, places like Fangzhang and Penglai (dwelling in the midst of the sea, borne about by sea turtles), where beings have long lives and beautiful forms, with halls and pavilions of radiant jade, purple, and green—for those devoted to the Dao of immortality, these are all lands where divine immortals roam and gather. They aspire to sprout wings and roost there. That heavenly Emperor Śakra has ministers and guards that assist and protect him, dignified and reverent, who govern those various heavens and illuminate and cover the earth below. He presides over the palace of a thousand wheels, hung with nets of strung pearls, shining brilliantly among them, where all things are manifested. Thus, if the multitude of mortals should wish that their sins and blessings, death and birth, long or short lives, good or bad fortune, and appointed meetings not be seen within those pearls, it is impossible (matters of sin and blessing are all seen within Emperor Śakra's pearl net). For this reason, when those of the upper class commit transgressions, Heaven carries out their punishment (hence it is said, 'Heaven's mandate brings it to an end'); when the common people commit transgressions, Heaven delegates their punishment (Heaven generates the teeming masses and sets up shepherds over them); and toward the good, blessings are bestowed in like manner. Thus the gentleman says that misfortune and blessing are made manifest through Heaven's mandate, meaning that they are simply recorded in the heart of the Sovereign. It is also said that 'good and bad fortune do not err' (to err means to exceed or differ), meaning that the Way of Qian is upright. Therefore, Shennong and Houji were among men (the ancestors of the Zhou both sowed seeds and grains to encourage the people) to provide nourishment on behalf of Heaven. Gao Yao (the judicial officer in the time of Yao) and the Fu Penal Code (King Mu of Zhou made Lü Ji, the Marquis of Qi, the Minister of Justice, and had him establish the five punishments, hence it was called the Lü Penal Code; the Marquis of Lü later became the Marquis of Fu, so it was called the Fu Penal Code, which is an official title) carried out punishments on behalf of Heaven. Tang the Successful and Fa of Zhou (Tang the Successful attacked Jie; King Wu attacked Zhou) carried out punitive campaigns on behalf of Heaven. Fu Yue (the minister of Gaozong of Yin) and the Earl of Shao (the Grand Protector of Zhou) exercised governance on behalf of Heaven. If they 'enjoyed the five blessings' (the five blessings are: first, long life; second, wealth; third, health and peace; fourth, love of virtue; fifth, a well-ended life) or 'overawed with the six extremities' (the first is misfortune and premature death; the second is sickness; the third is sorrow; the fourth is poverty; the fifth is ugliness; the sixth is weakness), none but a sage could perceive the patterns of the regular principles (regular means customary; principles means order). The Great Brahmā treats Emperor Śakra as his vassal; Emperor Śakra treats the Four Heavenly Kings as his vassals; the Four Heavenly Kings treat the host of spirits as their vassals; and they treat the host of rulers as theirs. The *Classic of Documents* states: 'I presume to use a black bull, and presume to clearly announce to the Sovereign Spirit of High Heaven.' Could this perhaps refer to the Great Brahmā Heaven? If not, since the blue sky is without fragrance or odour, who then is the true ruler (who could it be if not the Great Brahmā)? As for conducting sacrifices at the Circular Mound (the Son of Heaven sacrifices to Heaven at the Circular Mound), offering the *lei* sacrifice to the Sovereign on High of the Vast Heavens (the *lei* is a sacrifice), making offerings to Lingweiyang and the rest (the spirits of the five directions: in the east, Lingweiyang; in the south, Chibiaonu; in the west, Baizhaoju; in the north, Xieguangji; and in the central region, Hanshuniu), and paying respects to the sun, moon, and stars—these perhaps pertain to the Great Brahmā King, heavenly Emperor Śakra, the Four Heavenly Kings, and the like. Whenever the five qis, the five suburbs, and the five emperors ascend the altar, with the five spirits receiving matching offerings and the hundred spirits in attendance, these are perhaps the Four Heavenly Kings and Emperor Śakra. It is merely that later generations in performing these rites have all inherited ancient canons. In antiquity, the world was vast, unhewn, and simple (vast means immense; in high antiquity, heaven and earth were purely vast, plain, and simplified); each people, according to the territory they occupied and the movement of qi that formed them (occupying a realm and ruling by relying on the movement of the qi of the Five Elements), fashioned ritual classics, invoked their divine and earthly spirits (using ancient practices to fashion ritual classics, invoking the spirits of heaven and earth), and made offerings of sacrificial animals. Although the names differ, the matters perhaps tally obscurely. Therefore, the Western Regions have no earthen altars or cleared grounds (heaping earth forms an altar; clearing earth forms a cleared ground; these are places for sacrificing and reporting to heaven and earth), yet they have heavenly shrines; they differ in custom from the central Huaxia land. In the past, Viscount Jian of Zhao enjoyed the music of the Vast Heaven (the *Records of the Grand Historian* state: Viscount Jian of Zhao fell ill and lost awareness of others; after seven days he awoke and said, 'I went to the Sovereign's place and was very happy; I roamed with the hundred spirits in the Vast Heaven, where the vast music played nine movements and ten thousand dances, unlike the music of the Three Dynasties; its sound stirred the heart'); Duke Mu of Qin bowed in gratitude for the gift of Chunshou (Duke Mu of Qin dreamed that Heaven bestowed a golden register upon him; the land of Chunshou is the celestial division corresponding to Qin; Chun is the star of the Vermilion Bird in the south, Chunshou; Gui and Liu form Chunshou, and Yi and Zhen form Chunwei). This is because the spirit communicates with Heaven: while the soul goes forth, the physical form remains behind. Though the high and the low are far apart, their response is exceedingly close (heaven is high and earth is low; 'exceedingly' means very; 'close' means near). Shen Sheng made his plea with dishevelled hair (Hu Yan was traveling when he saw Shen Sheng, who had him drive his chariot and said, 'Yiwu treated me with disrespect; I have obtained permission from the Sovereign on High to give Jin to Qin.' Later it turned out just as he had said; the Sovereign on High is Heaven; these are all affairs of Jin). Liu Yue had his petition regarding fine jade (Liu Yue was the crown prince of Liu Cong; he dreamed of entering the land of Huaxu and revived after seven days). This shows that Heaven imparts its numinous power to demonstrate that the dead retain awareness; who among the common people below could fail to be sincere and faithful (who means anyone; its means their; to be able means can; if there were no such numinous responses, who among the common people could believe)? Above these Thirty-Three Heavens, all are called aerial dwellings. Unless one has attained supernormal powers, one cannot go there. In all there are twenty-six locations (from the Yāma Heaven up to Neither-Perception-Nor-Non-Perception, counting twenty-six heavens in all), with layered clouds and manifold structures, where lifespans and youthful features are doubled and extended (from five hundred years up to eighty thousand kalpas in Neither-Perception-Nor-Non-Perception). Some have subtle clouds, and some have subtle forms. They are governed by the three realms, which makes their categories clear; they are encompassed by the four modes of birth, which marks out their varieties (to govern means to unify; to make clear means to illuminate; although the subtle numbers are many, in general they do not exceed the three realms, being subsumed under the twenty-eight heavens; the four modes of birth—womb-born, egg-born, moisture-born, and spontaneously born—mark them out and subsume them entirely). The *Armillary Sphere* says: 'Heaven is like a hen's egg, and the earth is like the yolk inside' (the earth is like the yolk inside a hen's egg; the earth is within heaven). It resides within heaven: heaven is large and earth is small; there is water on both the outside and inside; and heaven and earth each rest upon clouds as they stand.