折疑論 3

English (machine translation) 3

Language: English

3.1

Composed and annotated by Siṃha Bhikṣu from the Western Regions, residing at Dacien Monastery on the Golden Terrace

3.2

Chapter 9: Assessment and Discussion (This chapter comments upon and discusses the regulations of ritual and etiquette; hence it is called "Assessment and Discussion.")

The guest said: "The Yellow Emperor let his robes hang down, and the dress of officialdom was complete; (Leaving them to the world to transform and benefit all under Heaven; hence caps and robes first began to be ordered under the Yellow Emperor.)

3.4

the Uncrowned King instituted rituals, and the demeanor of bowed bowing took form. (['Uncrowned':] su means empty. It means Confucius had the virtue of a ruler and teacher, but lacked the position of a ruler and teacher. The preface to the Zuo Zhuan says: 'The Master composed the Spring and Autumn Annals as the Uncrowned King; Zuo Qiuming transmitted the Spring and Autumn Annals as the uncrowned minister.' Thus rituals and music first flourished with Confucius.)

3.5

Dress is the first of the Three Virtues; (The Classic of Filial Piety says: 'If it is not the standard dress of the former kings, one does not dare to wear it; if it is not the virtuous conduct of the former kings, one does not dare to practice it; if it is not the standard speech of the former kings, one does not dare to utter it.' Among the three virtues, dress comes first; hence it is called 'the first.')

3.6

demeanor heads the Five Matters. (The Book of Documents says: 'The first is demeanor; the second, speech; the third, sight; the fourth, hearing; the fifth, thought.' The commentary says: 'Demeanor is said to be respectful; speech, compliant; sight, clear; hearing, sharp; thought, penetrating. Respect leads to solemnity; compliance, to good order; clarity, to discernment; sharpness, to counsel; penetration, to sagacity.' Among the five matters, demeanor comes first; hence it is called 'the head.')

3.7

When Zilu met with disaster, he did not forget to tie his cap strings; (Ying means the cord that ties the cap. When Zilu met with the revolt of the Crown Prince of Wei, he tied his cap strings and straightened his cap before dying; though in distress, he did not discard his cap.)

3.8

though Yuan Xian was poor, he did not abandon his magnificent cap. (Yuan Xian was a man of Lu. Poor and dwelling in a dilapidated hut, he constantly wore his cap. Zigong passed by him and said, 'Are you ill?' Xian said, 'I have heard that lacking wealth is called poverty, while inability to practice the Way is called illness. I am poor; I am not ill.')

3.9

Now the śramaṇas shave their beards and hair and wear dark robes. (Yi is pronounced in the falling tone, meaning to wear. Zi means black. Pao means a wide robe.)

3.10

Outwardly they have no etiquette of kneeling and rising; inwardly they cut off the courtesy of gentle reverence. Can they be said not to violate the regulations of the former kings?" (Outwardly, before the ruler, they have no ritual etiquette of kneeling and bowing. Inwardly, before parents, they have no courteous demeanor of gentle reverence. By failing to practice the institutional laws of the ancient, former wise kings, how could they not be in violation?)

3.11

Miaoming said: "How extreme is your lack of understanding! (It is your error. This reproaches the guest's question as being thoroughly unversed in principle.)

3.12

In antiquity, there were rulers with snake bodies and tiger noses, and sages with ox heads and dragon scales. (Fuxi had a snake's body and dragon scales; King Yu had a tiger's nose; Shennong had an ox's head. All were sage rulers.)

3.13

ate raw flesh and drank foul blood (to consume as food. "羶" is raw fish or meat; "臭" is the spoiled smell of meat. Before the Suiren clan there was no fire, and people took raw flesh and fresh blood as food. Today's sacrificial offerings of livestock still follow this);

3.14

clothed themselves in feathers and clothed themselves in skins (both instances of "衣" are pronounced in the falling tone. Before the Yellow Thearch there was not yet clothing, and everyone used the fur, feathers, and skins of birds and beasts as clothing);

3.15

in summer lived in nests of sticks ("橧" is pronounced like "曾"; it means a bird's nest. The sages of high antiquity had no houses; in summer they lived in nests of sticks);

3.16

in winter lived in constructed caves ("營" means to build and construct. In winter they lived by constructing caves and cavities to dwell in);

3.17

their Way exalted simplicity and plainness (speaking of the Way, they exalted and revered it);

3.18

their virtue prized pure vacuity (speaking of virtue, they honored and prized pure vacuity and non-action);

3.19

they did not yet know the etiquette of gentle deference, kneeling, and rising, nor did they recognize the beauty of the ceremonial cap and the scholar's sash (the zhangfu cap is a ritual cap);

3.20

hence Fu Xi let his hair hang loose and his feet did not tread in shoes (with disheveled hair and bare feet);

3.21

Shennong bared his crown and his head was not adorned with a cap (his head was without ceremonial cap or crown);

3.22

at that time, how could there have been the adornments of hairpins, hat ribbons, ceremonial caps, and court robes? (Concluding the preceding passage: these were all rulers of sagely virtue; through the Way of non-action, they transformed and benefited the world. How could they have had hairpins, hat ribbons, caps, and robes as personal adornments?)

3.23

Yet the Six Classics and the various masters praise their utmost virtue, and one has never heard that due to the lack of ceremonial caps, they were faulted for violating proper principle. Formerly, Duke Ai of Lu asked Confucius, 'What cap did Shun wear?' (The first "冠" is falling tone, the second level tone. He asked what cap Emperor Shun wore.)

3.24

Confucius did not reply. The Duke said, 'I have asked a question, and you, sir, do not reply. What is the meaning of this?' ("寡" means few. This is a ruler's humble self-designation, meaning one of little virtue.)

3.25

Confucius said, 'Because your question did not reach what is great, I was just pondering how to frame my response before answering it.' (Confucius said: because I saw that the ruler's inquiry did not concern what is great, only then did I ponder words with which to reply.)

3.26

The Duke said, 'Why is it not great?' (The Duke said: Why is it not great?)

3.27

Confucius said, 'In Shun's being a ruler, his virtue loved life and abhorred killing; ("惡" is pronounced "wù", meaning to dislike. Shun was a ruler who transformed the people through virtue, loving growth and life and abhorring slaughter;)

3.28

his governance employed the worthy and dismissed the unworthy; ("去" is in the falling tone. "Unworthy" means not being worthy. In carrying out governance, he selected and employed those of worthy virtue, and dismissed those who were not worthy;)

3.29

his brilliance matched the sun and the moon; (his brilliance of virtue stood in parallel with the sun and moon;)

3.30

his transformation operated like a spirit; (his moral influence was widely enacted, and its responsiveness was like that of a spirit;)

3.31

turtles and phoenixes presented auspicious omens, while qilin and dragons matched with portents. (The qilin, phoenix, turtle, and dragon are called the Four Numina. They are auspicious omens of a true king, appearing when the state possesses a sagely king.)

3.32

Yet you, my Lord, asked only about caps and crowns; therefore it was not great.' (Matters regarding caps and crowns are not the great affairs of state governance.)

3.33

Thus, the Way, virtue, ritual, and music reside in what a person does, (The Way, virtue, ritual, and music were all found in what the rulers of that era did;)

3.34

not in what ceremonial caps and crowns bring about. Laozi said, 'When the Way is lost, virtue appears; (The Way is spontaneity. Virtue is like attainment. When the Way declines, one transforms through virtue; therefore it is said, 'When the Way is lost, virtue appears.')

3.35

when virtue is lost, benevolence appears; (The benevolent mind holds loving and beneficial intent. Thus when virtue declines, benevolence is practiced; therefore it is said, 'When virtue is lost, benevolence appears.')

3.36

when benevolence is lost, righteousness appears; (The righteous person possesses a decisive and regulative mind. When benevolence declines, righteousness is practiced; therefore it is said, 'When benevolence is lost, righteousness appears.')

3.37

when righteousness is lost, ritual appears. (Ritual holds the intent to coerce the people. Because righteousness declines, ritual is employed; therefore it is said, 'When righteousness is lost, ritual appears.')

3.38

Now, ritual is the thinning of loyalty and trustworthiness, and the beginning of disorder.' (This means that ritual does not accord with the Way of non-action. Therefore what Laozi called ritual is the thinning of loyalty and trustworthiness and the beginning of disorder. It means not attending to what is within while adorning what is without; hence ritual emerges from human contrivance.)

3.39

For this reason, rulers of sagely virtue used the Way of non-action to transform and benefit the world; (In high antiquity there was the Way; rulers of sagely virtue used the Way of non-making and non-action to bring beauty to the world. It was only after the Way perished and virtue was lost that benevolence was valued; when benevolence perished and righteousness was lost, ritual was again valued. Therefore what Laozi called ritual is the falsity of external adornments on the body.)

3.40

how could they be constrained by etiquette and regulations? (How could they be attached and bound to the adornments of polite demeanor and petty rules?)

3.41

Ritual is simply reverence. (Ritual is merely the etiquette of respect and reverence.)

3.42

Reverence resides in the mind, (Hence the ritual of reverence emerges from the original mind,)

3.43

not in caps and crowns. (not that caps and crowns can generate reverent ritual.)

3.44

How could the Way of the sages be confined merely to ceremonial adornments? (The sagely rulers of high antiquity used earnest virtue and genuine plainness to practice the Way and transform the people; how could they be confined merely to the ceremonial adornments of caps and crowns?)

3.45

Therefore Confucius said, ''Ritual,' they say, 'ritual!' Does it mean jade and silk? 'Music,' they say, 'music!' Does it mean bells and drums?' (To express reverence through jade and silk is ritual; to express harmony through bells and drums is music. If one abandons the root and focuses exclusively on the branches, how could that be called ritual and music?)

3.46

Ritual has reverence as its master; it is not merely the exalting of jade and silk, but what is valued is bringing peace to superiors and order to the people. (Ritual is that by which superior and inferior are distinguished and the governance of the people is fixed; therefore in bringing peace to superiors and order to the people, nothing surpasses ritual.)

3.47

Music has harmony as its master; it does not lie solely in bells and drums, but what is valued is shifting mores and altering customs. (Music is that by which order is achieved and the voices of the people are harmonized; therefore in shifting mores and altering customs, nothing surpasses music.)

3.48

Therefore, the noble person cannot be known through petty matters, but can receive great responsibilities. (A 'noble person' is the designation of perfected virtue; one does not gauge them by petty knowledge, but can entrust them with what is great.)

3.49

Although the clothing and ornaments instituted by the sages throughout the dynasties—whereby the people of the Central Plains practice the rituals of the Central Plains—cannot be discarded, (The Yellow Thearch instituted clothing, and the Duke of Zhou instituted ritual and music; through these adornments, they transformed and benefited the people of the Central Plains so that they practiced the rituals of the Central Plains. These indeed cannot be discarded;)

3.50

yet how could a gentleman who has departed from dust, treading the exalted conduct beyond form, imitate them? ('Treading' means high treading. As for 'imitating', the Jiaogong chapter of the Odes says, 'Such is your instruction; the people all imitate it.' The commentary says: The king's position rests on virtue, which is the pivot of the primary customs. When teaching is set forth, the people imitate it very quickly. For an exalted gentleman who has left the worldly dust, practicing lofty and transcendent conduct beyond all forms, how could he be confined to imitating this ritual of bowing low and wearing caps?)

3.51

Furthermore, Master Li made a deep bow before Emperor Gao; (Emperor Gaozu of the Han once summoned the Qin recluse Master Li, named Yiji, and granted him an audience. When he arrived, he saw maidservants washing the emperor's feet; because the emperor did not respect the worthy, he did not prostrate, but made a deep bow and declined the place of honor at the feast. "食" is pronounced "yì", "其" is pronounced "jī".)

3.52

Xu You rejected the mandate of Emperor Yao; (In the 'Yielding the Throne' chapter of Zhuangzi, Yao offered the empire to Xu You, but You rejected the mandate and did not go.)

3.53

Heshang Gong sat while receiving Emperor Wen of Han; (In the Liexian zhuan, Emperor Wen of Han loved the Way and virtue, and once sent an envoy to inquire about its meaning from Heshang Gong. The Gong said: 'The Way is lofty and virtue is noble; they cannot be heard from afar.' Later the emperor personally visited his hermitage, and Heshang Gong remained seated while granting him an audience.)

3.54

and Zhuge Liang lay proudly before the Former Sovereign. (In the Shiji, Zhuge Kongming lived in reclusion in a thatched cottage in Nanyang. Xu Shu recommended him to the Former Sovereign. When the Former Sovereign went to see him, Kongming remained asleep and did not rise.)

3.55

In all these cases, their Way illumined the Four Seas and their virtue covered all quarters; since antiquity they have been praised as lofty and noble. ("尚" means high.)

3.56

Nor has anyone ever seen them faulted for violating etiquette due to the absence of kneeling and rising. ("闕" means lacking. This indicates the preceding question, stating that none of the several persons mentioned above were ever faulted for violating etiquette due to the lack of kneeling and rising.)

3.57

As for the śramaṇas of today, their Way exalts earnest trustworthiness, and their aspirations yearn for non-action. (Today's monks practice the style of the Buddha and patriarchs; their Way exalts loftiness, earnestness, and sincerity, and with resolute will they deeply yearn for the Way of non-action.)

3.58

Internally they do not pay homage to the master of the household, (The master of the household is the father.)

3.59

and externally they do not bow to the lord of men. (The lord of men is the king of the state.)

3.60

Compared to the likes of Heshang Gong, they are indeed of the same kind. (Virtuous, eminent monks are of the same class when compared to the likes of Heshang Gong.)

3.61

Viewed from this perspective, even among the worthy and virtuous since antiquity, there were those who dwelt exalted in local hamlets or whistled freely amidst cloudy mountains, (In Mencius: nine hundred mu form a well-field system, and five neighborhoods make a hamlet. Throughout history, ancient worthy persons and virtuous scholars who yearned for their Way either hid away in hamlets or whistled freely, escaping the world to dwell in the midst of cloudy mountains.)

3.62

whom the Son of Heaven could not make subjects, and whom kings and marquises could not make friends; (The 'Conduct of the Scholar' chapter in the Liji says: 'The scholar above does not serve the Son of Heaven, and below does not serve the feudal lords.' The 'Way of Heaven' chapter in the Zhuangzi says: 'When Zengzi lived in Wei, the Son of Heaven could not make him a subject, and the feudal lords could not make him a friend.' Thus those who nourish their aspiration forget their physical form; those who nourish their form forget profit; and those who reach the Way forget their minds.)

3.63

how could they be constrained by the regulations of ritual and righteousness? (Concluding the meaning of the preceding passage about the Son of Heaven being unable to make them subjects and the lords being unable to make them friends: how could they be constrained by ritual etiquette and institutional systems?)

3.64

How much less so the teaching beyond form! (How much less, then, the śramaṇas, who follow the sagely teaching that transcends the mundane world of forms!)

3.65

Therefore, the noble person follows what is appropriate; there is nowhere he goes that is not acceptable. (For this reason, the noble person follows only righteousness; as long as it is appropriate, wherever he goes is acceptable.)

3.66

How could petty caps and ceremonial etiquette control him? ("區區" denotes a small appearance.)

3.67

Question Ten: Raising an Inquiry (This chapter cites analogies and different matters to pose an inquiry; hence it is called 'Raising an Inquiry'.)

3.68

The guest said, 'Jilu asked about serving ghosts and spirits. (Jilu is Zilu.)

3.69

The Master said, 'Before you are able to serve men, how can you serve ghosts?' He said, 'I venture to ask about death.' The Master said, 'Before you know life, how can you know death?' (In the Analects. The commentary says: Day and night are the way of death and life. If one knows the way of life, one knows the way of death. If one exhausts the way of serving men, one exhausts the way of serving ghosts. Death and life, men and ghosts, are one yet two, two yet one. Some say: The Master did not tell him because Zilu did not understand, and this is how he profoundly instructed him.)

3.70

These are matters that the sage refused to discuss. (These are matters about which the sage Confucius strictly refused to speak.)

3.71

Now Buddhism readily speaks of matters concerning the coming and going of birth and death, and the signs of retribution from ghosts and spirits. (Now the Buddhist teaching speaks exclusively of absurd matters concerning the coming and going of birth and death.)

3.72

I fear this is not the speech of sages and philosophers.' (Mencius said: 'To be great and to transform is called a sage.' The Shujing says: 'Knowing this is called brilliance; a philosopher refers to one who knows the Way.' Therefore the guest said: I fear that this Way of the Buddha is not the sincere speech of sages and philosophers.)

3.73

"Now, one who walks the Way should contain harmony and cherish simplicity (Now, one who traverses and walks this Way should contain mild harmony and accumulate pure simplicity),

3.74

be steadfast in faith and devoted to reality (Steadfast means pure and generous. Faith means sincere and true. Devoted means focusing one's efforts on affairs. Sincerity means true faith without falsehood. It is simply being pure, generous, sincere, and devoted to reality).

3.75

Why must one speak of life and death to disturb one's mind, or talk of ghosts and spirits to confuse one's aspirations?" (If one contains harmony, cherishes simplicity, is steadfast in faith, and devoted to reality, why would there be any need to discuss life and death to disturb one's mind, or talk about ghosts and spirits to confuse one's aspirations?)

3.76

Miaoming said, "What you have said may be called seeing what is external without yet seeing what is internal (Rebuking the guest, he says: You can see that external teachings speak of matters of life and death, ghosts and spirits, but you do not see that within your own teaching there are also things said of them. The Doctrine of the Mean says: 'The Master said, "How abundantly do ghosts and spirits manifest their virtuest!"' The Diagram of the Supreme Polarity says: 'Tracing things to their origin and returning to their end, one understands the teachings on life and death.' The commentary says: 'The beginning is life, meaning the origin of life. The end is cessation, meaning that having concluded, it is said to be death.').

3.77

Seeking what is near without seeking what is far (You only seek shallow, nearby matters and do not seek deep and far-reaching principles).

3.78

Because Zilu's temperament was fierce and violent, unarmed he would grapple a tiger and without a boat cross a river, failing to cultivate life properly, [the Master] therefore said, 'Before you understand life, how can you understand death?' (Ping is pronounced ping. Because Zilu was impetuous in nature and his courage was fierce and unyielding. 'Grappling a tiger' means wrestling with bare fists. 'Crossing a river' means crossing without a boat. He was not good at discreetly nurturing life, so [the Master] said, 'While you are not yet able to serve human beings, how can you serve ghosts? Before you understand life, how can you understand death?' This was a rebuke directed at Zilu).

3.79

His chest was haughtily raised (Jue is pronounced yu-wu. It carries the meaning of rising distinctively. It refers to the appearance of Zilu's chest being puffed up in haughty abandon),

3.80

and in his speech there was no humility (If he was not even able to attend to human affairs, how could he understand matters of ghosts and spirits?).

3.81

Thus Confucius suppressed and checked him. How could that be a definitive statement of the whole truth? (It was Confucius's intent to suppress, curb, and block him. How could it mean there are truly no such things as ghosts and spirits?).

3.82

Confucius said, 'To sacrifice to a ghost that does not belong to oneself is flattery' (In the Analects, when Confucius speaks of 'a ghost that does not belong to oneself', it refers to a ghost one ought not to sacrifice to; if one sacrifices to it, it is flattery, seeking to curry favor).

3.83

Human spirits are called ghosts (What extends and brings to life is a spirit (shen); what bends and dies is a ghost (gui)).

3.84

The word 'ghost' (gui) means 'to return' (gui) (That which arrives and extends is a spirit; that which turns back and returns is a ghost).

3.85

It is that to which a person's hun and po souls return (The Spring and Autumn Zuo Tradition says: 'When human life begins to transform, it becomes the hun. Once the po is generated, the yang is called hun.' The Huainanzi says: 'The qi of heaven becomes the hun; the qi of earth becomes the po.' The Book of Rites says: 'The hun-qi returns to heaven; the bodily po reverts to earth.' For the hun is the spirit, yang, and qi; the po is the essence, yin, and bodily form. This concludes the preceding statement that it is that to which a person's hun and po return and revert).

3.86

This says that to sacrifice to ghosts and spirits that are not one's own ancestors is to seek through flattery (Both deceased grandfathers and fathers are referred to as kao. It means that to sacrifice to hun spirits that are not one's own ancestors is flattery and seeking favor).

3.87

He also said, 'Ancestral temples were established for them, making offerings to them as ghosts' (When the three years of mourning were complete, the spirit tablets were established in the family temple, making offerings to them in spring and autumn with the rites for ghosts and spirits).

3.88

'Sacrifices were made in spring and autumn, remembering them at the proper season' (When the rains and dew of spring have moistened, and the frost and dew of autumn have descended, the sacrificial rites are performed in all cases; as cold and heat alternate, filial remembrance is unfolded).

3.89

He also said, 'In life, serve them with love and respect (When parents are living, serve them with love and respect);

3.90

in death, attend to them with grief and sorrow' (When parents have died, attend to them with grief and sorrow).

3.91

He also said, 'In mourning, express one's utmost grief (In mourning parents' death, express one's utmost grief and sorrow);

3.92

in sacrifice, express one's utmost reverence' (In the seasonal sacrifices, fulfill one's utmost reverence and solemnity).

3.93

He also said, 'The Duke of Zhou performed the suburban sacrifice to Houji to pair him with Heaven (Houji was the first ancestor of the Duke of Zhou. Formerly, when the Duke of Zhou served as regent, he conducted the suburban sacrifice to Heaven and paired his first ancestor Houji with Heaven to receive offerings);

3.94

he performed the ancestral sacrifice to King Wen in the Bright Hall to pair him with the Lord on High' (King Wen was the father of the Duke of Zhou. The Bright Hall was the palace where the Son of Heaven promulgated government. When the Duke of Zhou sacrificed to the Lord on High in the Bright Hall, he honored his father to pair him in receiving offerings. This was honoring King Wen as a revered father in the ancestral temple to pair him with the Lord on High).

3.95

He also said, 'While living, the parents enjoy contentment (From the Son of Heaven down to the common people, all obtain a joyful heart, so that parents during life are at peace in their honorable sustenance);

3.96

when sacrificed to, the ghosts enjoy the offerings' (When parents die and become ghosts, they enjoy the sacrifices).

3.97

He also said, 'When Heaven and Earth are clear and discerning, the divine spirits manifest' (Serving Heaven clearly means the father accords with the Way of Heaven; serving Earth discerningly means the mother accords with the Way of Earth. Once there is such filial piety, the principle of the divine spirits of Heaven and Earth becomes fully manifest).

3.98

He also said, 'When utmost respect is paid in the ancestral temple, the ghosts and spirits are made manifest' (If one can pay utmost respect in the ancestral temple, then the principle of the ghosts and spirits of the ancestral temple becomes fully manifest).

3.99

'When filial piety and fraternal respect reach their utmost, they communicate with the divine spirits' (When the way of filial piety and fraternal respect reaches its most profound depth, it can resonate and communicate with the divine spirits).

3.100

He also said, 'When living, serve them according to ritual (While parents are alive, love and respect them according to ritual);

3.101

when dead, bury them according to ritual (When parents have passed away, bury them according to ritual);

3.102

sacrifice to them according to ritual' (When parents have been buried, sacrifice to them according to ritual).

3.103

He also said, 'In Yu, I can find no flaw: frugal in food and drink, he displayed his utmost filial piety toward the ghosts and spirits' (Jian is read in the departing tone. Fei means meager. In the Analects, Confucius says: 'In the deeds done by King Yu, I can find no defect or flaw to point out. He was able to display his utmost filial piety toward the ghosts and spirits,' meaning that the offerings were abundant and pure; while he treated his own nourishment frugally, he sacrificed generously to the ghosts and spirits).

3.104

The Book of Rites contains 'A Summary of Sacrifices' and 'The Meaning of Sacrifices,' which speak solely of the way of pairing with Heaven to sacrifice to the Thearch, making offerings to the ancestors, honoring parents, and venerating and serving the spirits and ghosts (Concluding the preceding meaning: The Book of Rites contains the ceremonial protocols of sacrifice, which are cited here as evidence. 'Solely' means exclusively. It is not that exclusively sacrificing to the Lord on High, making offerings to ancestors, and sacrificing to spirits and ghosts is wrong; [the Master's remark] was merely words rebuking Zilu's fierce and bold temperament and his inability to practice deference and sincerity).

3.105

How could they sever human affairs from spirits and ghosts and yet understand life and death? Do you alone not know this? (Rebuking the guest for being alone in not knowing this principle).

3.106

It is only that the sage Confucius spoke of them vaguely (It is merely that the Master's words only bear a slight resemblance and approximation).

3.107

The Tathāgata dissected their subtle intricacies, clearly revealing cause and effect and detailing retribution—planting good to exalt blessings, sowing evil to reap calamities—guiding all under heaven to return to good (The Tathāgata's teaching can dissect and reveal the reality of cause and effect, explaining them in complete detail. When good causes are planted deep within subtle intricacies, they exalt the response of blessed retribution; when evil causes are planted, they naturally incur the response of misfortune and calamity. Through this, dividing the affairs under heaven, there are none that do not return to the good Way. The Book of Documents says: 'Upon the one who does good, a hundred blessings descend; upon the one who does evil, a hundred calamities descend.' The Book of Changes says: 'A family that accumulates good will surely have an excess of blessings; a family that accumulates evil will surely have an excess of calamities.' This explanation of retribution for good and evil is exceedingly clear).

3.108

How could it be that only the Buddhist school is fond of speaking of the matters of ghosts and spirits? (Concluding the preceding meaning: How could it be that only our Buddha is fond of speaking about the retribution of good and evil, ghosts and spirits?).

3.109

If it is like this, how could there be any contradiction between Confucianism and Buddhism? (As above, these are all the teachings of Confucius clarifying the ways of serving parents in life, burying them in death, pairing with Heaven to sacrifice to the Thearch, making offerings to ancestors, honoring parents, and venerating ghosts and spirits. In this case, how could there be any contradiction between the Confucian and Buddhist teachings?).

3.110

Chapter 11: Explaining Regions (This chapter distinguishes the different regions of the barbarians and the Xia, and hence is titled 'Explaining Regions')

3.111

The guest said, "Zhongni said, 'The Yi and Di barbarians having rulers is not like the various Xia states lacking them' (Wang was anciently written for wu [lacking]. The Analects says: Although the Yi and Di have rulers and chiefs, they are not like the usurpations and disorders of the Xia states, where on the contrary there is no distinction between high and low. This was Confucius lamenting and sighing over the disorder of the contemporary rulers. Although they had rulers, they did not practice their Way; it was not that they literally had none).

3.112

Mencius said, 'I have heard of using the Xia to transform the barbarians, but I have not heard of being transformed by the barbarians' (This rebuked Chen Xiang and Xu Xing for using the rituals of the Xia states to transform into southern barbarians).

3.113

Moreover, you formerly studied the Way of the Two Thearchs and Three Kings, and the texts of the Six Classics and the various philosophers. Now you abandon them instead and on the contrary study the words of the Western Regions. Is that not also vulgar?" (Contrariwise means not in accord. On the contrary studying the spoken teachings of the Buddha of the Western Regions—is that not considered base and vulgar?).

3.114

Miaoming said, "In the past, when I had not yet seen the subtle intentions of the Great Sage, I also once uttered these words; my view was not far from yours. Now, however, it is different. Someone like you may be called one who knows the blossoms of ritual and music but is blind to the reality of the Way and virtue, one who gazes at the glow of a torch but has not beheld the brightness of the sun and moon (An means dim; it means obscured. A torch is a small torch. Now, comparing you to someone who understands the brilliance of ritual and music but is blind and obscured to the reality of the Way and virtue—how is it any different? Zhuangzi says: 'When the sun has already risen, yet the torch is not extinguished, is it not difficult for it to provide illumination?' This refers to the guest's view being confined to a small fire without seeing the brightness of the sun and moon).

3.115

What Confucius spoke was grief over the contemporary rulers discarding ritual; what Mencius criticized was Chen Xiang's exclusive focus on agriculture. Their intentions had specific targets; the principles were not categorical assertions (This means Confucius grieved over the disorder of the rulers of former times and their destruction of ritual; what Mencius said was that the views of Xu Xing and Chen Xiang on the contrary made them into southern barbarians).

3.116

Anciently, Confucius wished to reside among the Nine Yi (The commentary to the Analects: There were nine kinds of Yi in the east. The 'Treatise on the Eastern Yi' in the Book of the Later Han says: the Quan Yi, Yu Yi, Fang Yi, Huang Yi, Bai Yi, Chi Yi, Xuan Yi, Feng Yi, and Yang Yi. His desire to reside among them was to make clear his intention of 'boarding a raft and floating upon the sea').

3.117

Someone said, 'They are vulgar; how can you do so?' The Master said, 'If a noble person resides among them, what vulgarity could there be?' (If a noble person resides among them, they will be transformed; what baseness and vulgarity could there be?).

3.118

When Zhongni traveled across all under heaven, none of the contemporary rulers put his Way into practice (When the Master traveled through more than seventy states, wishing to enact the benevolent government of the former kings, none of the rulers of the states at that time put his Way into practice).

3.119

Mencius wished to save these people, yet none of the feudal lords listened to his teachings (Mencius also traveled to various states, advocating the enactment of the government of a benevolent ruler and wishing to save these people, yet the feudal lords also did not listen to his teachings).

3.120

Was it because they considered the arts of the Western Regions vulgar that they did not employ them? (If Confucius grieved over the contemporary rulers discarding ritual, and Mencius criticized Chen Xiang's exclusive focus on agriculture, yet the feudal lords did not listen to their teachings, was it because they despised the teachings of the Western Regions as base and vulgar that they did not employ them?).

3.121

Now, Ji Wen and Si Yu were sage rulers, while Jin Midi and You Yu were worthy ministers. All of them were born among the Yi and Di (Ri is pronounced mi; di is pronounced di. Ji was the surname of King Wen; Si was the surname of King Yu. King Wen was born in Western Bin; King Yu was born in Shidian. Both sages were born in barbarian lands. They practiced the transformation and government of benevolent rulers in the Central States, and we have never seen it said that their government was abandoned. Jin Midi was a loyal barbarian minister during the reign of Emperor Wen of Han who possessed the virtue of a worthy man. You Yu was an envoy who entered the borders of Qin during the time of the First Emperor, and was also a worthy man. As for King Wen, King Yu, Jin Midi, You Yu, and others, these enlightened rulers and worthy ministers were all people of the Yi and Di).

3.122

Taikang and King You of Zhou were dissipated rulers. (The *Shiji* states that Taikang was the son of Qi and grandson of King Yu. He was fond of hunting. The *Shangshu* says: 'Indulging in women within, indulging in hunting without, soaking in wine, fond of music, high eaves and carved walls—his dissipation was extreme.' If it is like this, his state could never fail to perish. The *Shiji* states that King You of Zhou doted on Baosi, who disliked laughing. King You made beacon fires and large drums, ordering: 'If bandits arrive, light the fires to summon rescue.' King You playfully lit the beacon fires; the feudal lords all arrived, but there were no bandits. Baosi laughed heartily, and King You was delighted. Later, when the Hu troops arrived, the king lit the beacon fires; the feudal lords did not believe it, taking it for a joke. They subsequently killed King You at the foot of Mount Li and captured Baosi.)

3.123

Shi Zhao and Ying Qin were tyrannical rulers. (The *Shiji* states that Shi Zhao is Shi Le; during the time of Emperor Yuan of Eastern Jin, he devoted himself to slaughter. The *Shiji* states that Ying Qin is the First Emperor; he indulged in unprincipled acts and was violent in swallowing up the world.)

3.124

Zhao Gao and Li Si were flattering ministers. (Flattery means slander and sycophancy. Zhao Gao was a eunuch; Li Si was a minister. Both were ministers of the First Emperor; they killed the crown prince Fusu and the Second Emperor Huhai.)

3.125

Hou Jing and Yuwen were rebellious ministers. (The *Shiji* says Hou Jing was a rebellious minister against Emperor Wu of Liang, trapping Emperor Wu in Taicheng where he died. Yuwen was a rebellious minister against Emperor Yang of Sui, killing Emperor Yang in the capital Luoyang.)

3.126

All these were born in the central lands of the Xia. (Those below Taikang were all born in the central lands of the Xia.)

3.127

Viewing it from this: how can one restrict the worthy and the foolish, the fine and the base, by territorial borders? (How can one simply delimit the discussion of the worthy and foolish, fine and base, barbarian and Xia, by the domains of territorial boundaries?)

3.128

Moreover, Wenming came forth from the Western Qiang and yet was a sage. (The *Shangshu* states: 'Wenming was diffused to the four seas.' This is the virtuous designation of King Yu. The Western Qiang is the present-day territory of Rongzhou, who are barbarians.)

3.129

Gu Sou was born in the central lands of the Xia and yet was obstinate and deceitful. (Gu Sou was Shun's father. Because his mind did not follow the model of the former kings' virtue and righteousness, he was called obstinate. Shun's stepmother, because her mouth spoke no loyal or trustworthy words, was called deceitful.)

3.130

King Wen was born in Western Bin and cultivated benevolence and virtue. (King Wen was born on the border of Western Bin and spread benevolent governance to cultivate his virtue.)

3.131

King Zhou of Yin had his capital in eastern Luoyang and gave rein to ferocious cruelty. (King Zhou of Yin: in the rules of posthumous names, injuring righteousness and damaging goodness is called 'Zhou'. He had his capital in Luoyang, and in the Central Plains indulged his ferocity and wickedness, cruel and unprincipled.)

3.132

The Yellow Emperor's mind yearned for Huaxu. (*Liezi* states: 'The Yellow Emperor resided at leisure in the Great Court, purifying his mind and subduing his body for three months without attending to government affairs. Sleeping by day, he dreamed that he journeyed to the state of Huaxu. Afterwards, he implemented the governance of Huaxu.')

3.133

Laozi in principle learned from India. (The chapter 'Honoring the Buddhists' says: 'In India there is the Master of the Ancient Thearch, who is my teacher. He is adept at entering nirvāṇa and wandering transformations in India. Now his spirit has returned to the nameless, having severed the body and extinguished the shadow, without beginning and without end, continuous as if existing. I now journey there.')

3.134

King Mu passed through the Far North and forgot to return, disdaining the house of Zhou as inferior to it. (*Liezi* states: 'King Mu of Zhou journeyed north and passed through that country. For three years he forgot to return to the house of Zhou, yearning for that country. He felt completely lost, did not partake of wine or meat, and did not summon his concubines. Only after several months did he recover. After returning to the house of Zhou, he disdained the governance of the state of Zhou as inferior to that of the North.')

3.135

Duke Huan of Qi went to Liaokou and forgot to return, considering the state of Qi not as good. (*Liezi* states: 'Guan Zhong encouraged Duke Huan of Qi; taking advantage of traveling to Liaokou, they went together to that country, and were on the verge of overcoming it. Xi Peng remonstrated, saying: "The lord abandons the vastness of the state of Qi, the multitude of its people, the spectacle of its mountains and rivers, and the abundance of its products, saying he considers the state of Qi not as good as this."')

3.136

Furthermore, the asterism of the Northern Pole Star— (Before the seven stars of the Northern Dipper there are five stars. The astronomical *Song of the Pacing of the Heavens* says: 'The first seat is named the Ziwei Star; the second, the Crown Prince Star; the third, the Concubine's Son Star; the fourth, the Imperial Harem Star; the fifth, the Celestial Pivot Star.' Speaking in terms of stars, it is the Northern Pole.)

3.137

is in the center of heaven. (Also in the *Song of the Pacing of the Heavens*, what is called the center of heaven has Three Enclosures arranged like the character 品: the first is the Ziwei Enclosure; the second, the Taiwei Enclosure; the third, the Tianshi Enclosure. Outside there are the twenty-eight lunar mansions, their assigned positions combining with the remaining stars; taken in principle, its asterism is precisely in the center of heaven.)

3.138

It lies to the north of Qi. Viewing it from this, the lands of Qi, Lu, Han, and Wei are not necessarily the center. (It means the Northern Pole Star is to the north of the territory of Qi. In that case, the states of Qi, Lu, Wei, and so on are also not the center.)

3.139

If this side regards that side as the Western Rong, that side will certainly regard this side as the Eastern Yi. (Suppose that from here one looks upon that country of India as the Western Rong; they will surely point to this country as the land of the Eastern Yi.)

3.140

And moreover, which is truly the center? ('Which' means who. In that case, which country should really be taken as the Central Kingdom?)

3.141

From what high heaven covers to what thick earth bears, the breadth of the mountains and rivers, and the multitude of states and domains cannot be recorded in hundreds of millions. (Calculations say that one hundred thousand is an *yì*. It means between heaven and earth, mountains and rivers are vast, and states and domains are numerous; hence they cannot be recorded in numbers of hundreds of millions.)

3.142

How then do we know this is the center and that is the periphery? (Speaking like this, how do we know this place is the Central Kingdom and that place is the periphery?)

3.143

Furthermore, Buddhist sūtras take a trichiliocosm as the universe ruled by a single transformation Buddha. ('Ruled' is in the departing tone; when a lord presides over the world, it is called ruling. A sūtra says: 'Three thousand small chiliocosms make a medium chiliocosm; three thousand medium chiliocosms make a great trichiliocosm.' Thus a trichiliocosm is the realm governed by a single transformation Buddha.)

3.144

I therefore revere it and study it, so as to follow its greatness. (Because of this I revere and study it, hence following the vastness of the Buddha.)

3.145

Gold and jade do not harm each other; (The treasures of gold and jade each have their own value; how could they harm one another?)

3.146

blue and green do not obstruct each other. (The colors blue and green each have their own use; how could they obstruct each other?)

3.147

Moreover, a single drop of the great ocean possesses the flavor of a hundred rivers. (This is a metaphor: a single drop of water from the great ocean fully possesses the flavor of a hundred rivers. For a hundred rivers mingle and flow into the sea, so their flavor is one.)

3.148

If one knows the supramundane Way fairly well, then the mundane Way is obtained without toiling. (If one simply knows a little of the supramundane Way, then the mundane Way is known and obtained without awaiting toil and worry.)

3.149

If it is like this, then how could the Way of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius ever be abandoned? It is not that sages and worthies are restricted by barbarian and Xia, but merely that humans demarcate barbarian and Xia themselves.

3.150

Resolving Slander, Chapter 12 (This chapter resolves doubts concerning vilification and slander, hence it is titled 'Resolving Slander'.)

3.151

The guest said: "I have heard that those who uphold the precepts guard against all evils, bring forth all good, are pure and undefiled, and do not eat pungent food. (The guest cites the Buddhist precept rules, saying: 'I have heard that for those with precepts, all evil matters must be guarded against and not done, and all good matters must be practiced and definitely brought forth—only then are they pure and undefiled; nor may they consume the five pungent roots or pungent food.' With this he poses a challenge.)

3.152

Now I see śramaṇas defiling the pure conduct and indulging in wine and liquor, (In Sanskrit, *brahma* is translated here as 'pure'. The guest says: 'Now I see monks defiling pure conduct and indulging in and craving wine and liquor.')

3.153

using weights and measures, engaging in commerce, and trading and accumulating commodities. (A balance scale is *quán*; a ruler is *dù*; dry measures like *dǒu* and *hú* are *liàng*. Traveling to sell is *shāng*; sitting in shop is *gǔ*. Exchanging market prices is *mào*; shifting impermanently is *yì*. Exchanging wealth and transforming goods is *huò*; accumulating wealth and treasures is *zhí*.)

3.154

Viewing it from this, how can there be no transgression?" (Viewing it by this, how are they not transgressing the precepts and vinaya?)

3.155

Miaoming said: "What you say grasps what is near while forgetting what is far, and takes the small while abandoning the great. (Rebuking the guest, he says: 'What you say is like grasping a little of what is near while forgetting what is deep and far, taking minor matters while forgetting what is broad and great.')

3.156

Although the sun and moon are high, they suffer eclipses; (The *Record of Yin and Yang* says: 'The sun is the master of all yang; the moon is the essence of extreme yin.' Speaking of height, the sun and moon are more than forty thousand yojanas—also called *yojanas*—from the earth, one yojana being forty li. At such height, they still have the afflictions of eclipses.)

3.157

although scepters and jade disks are precious, they have flaws; (A scepter is an auspicious jade. The *Shuowen* says: 'Round above and square below, held by the Son of Heaven at grand audiences; it is the most precious among treasures.' A flaw means jade having a reddish mark; the most precious of treasures still cannot avoid flaws.)

3.158

Gongshu can transmit the compass and square to others, but cannot make them skillful in using them; (Transmitting means giving. Gongshu's name was Ban, a skillful man of Lu. The compass is an instrument for making circles; the square is an instrument for making squares. It means he can give others the methods of square and round, but cannot make others skillful in doing so.)

3.159

a sage can transmit precepts and vinaya to others, but cannot force them to step forth and practice them; (Although a Buddhist sage can transmit the rules and deportment of the precepts to others, he certainly cannot make them firmly uphold them without transgression and practice them.)

3.160

Gaoyao could penalize thieves and profligates, but could not transform greedy men into Boyi and Shuqi; (The pronunciation of 陶 is *yáo*. He was a worthy minister of Shun. Although he had the talent to settle lawsuits with a single word, he could not exhort and transform the crowd of thieves and profligates in prison into the righteous deference of Boyi and Shuqi.)

3.161

the Penal Code of Lü could punish the cruel and ferocious, but could not make wicked sons become Zeng and Min; (The *Shangshu*, 'Penal Code of Lü' chapter: The Marquis of Lü was the Minister of Justice for the Son of Heaven. King Mu of Zhou commanded him to expound punishments to proclaim to the four quarters. He could not transform the evil of wicked sons into the filial conduct of Zeng Shen and Min Ziqian.)

3.162

the sagely wisdom of Tang Yao could not transform the folly of Danzhu; (The *Shangshu*: Danzhu was Yao's son, born unworthy, so Yao abdicated and yielded the throne to Shun.)

3.163

the benevolence and worthiness of Zhongni could not stop the violence of Robber Zhi; (*Zhuangzi*: Robber Zhi was the younger brother of Liuxia Hui; unprincipled, cruel, and tyrannical, he rampaged through the world. Large states guarded their walls and small states retreated to fortresses. Confucius went to instruct him, and upon returning said to Liuxia Ji: 'I almost failed to escape the danger of a tiger's mouth.')

3.164

the virtue of Shun did not benefit Shangjun; (In the rules of posthumous names, benevolence, sagacity, and flourishing brightness is called 'Shun'. Shangjun was Shun's son, lacking the virtue of a great man, so Shun abdicated the throne to Yu.)

3.165

the favor of Zhou did not reach Guan and Cai. (Guan and Cai were two uncles of King Cheng; they spread rumors slandering the Duke of Zhou.)

3.166

Was it that the penal laws were not severe, or that their morality and virtue were incomplete? (Concluding the above text: Were the laws of Gaoyao and the Penal Code of Lü not stern and harsh? Were Yao, Shun, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius without morality and virtue? Yet they still could not hold accountable thieves and profligates, transform the ferocious and obstinate, or teach their own sons and brothers all to act with worthiness and filial piety.)

3.167

Why should śramaṇas alone be blamed for eating pungent food and being fond of wine? (Why should śramaṇas alone be held to blame and faulted for eating pungent food and drinking wine?)

3.168

In ancient times, Yan Ling fished with a rod; (Yan Guang, style Ziling, was a man of Nanyang and an old friend of Emperor Guangwu. During the disorder of Wang Mang, he lived in reclusion, fishing at Qilitan.)

3.169

Ziya used a straight hook; (Ziya had the surname Jiang and the given name Shang. Because King Zhou was unprincipled, he lived in reclusion on the bank of the Wei River. King Wen found him while hunting and subsequently appointed him as Taigong Wang; he destroyed King Zhou and established the Zhou.)

Linked texts (1)

折疑論 — Classical Chinese