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經律異相 1

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Compiled by the Liang śramaṇas Sengmin, Baochang, and others

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Preface

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The Tathāgata manifested traces in response to conditions, expounding the teachings according to capacity; he reached not only gods and humans, but nagas and ghosts as well. His conversion began with Kauṇḍinya and his path concluded with Subhadra. His texts accumulated by myriads, and his bamboo slips piled up to fill a great chiliocosm. Coming from the west to the east, they were indeed difficult to fathom completely. When Liu Xiang collated the books, the profound words had long been concealed; when Emperor Ming of the Han was moved by a dream, the spiritual evidence became ever more manifest. From then on, transmission and translation followed one another in succession; although the profound scriptures of the Tripiṭaka were roughly comprehensive, the varied teachings of the nine divisions had never been classified and gathered together.

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The Emperor, in accord with the Equal Enlightenment and matching the virtue of the All-Knowing, greatly promoted the scriptural teachings to benefit both the clerical and the secular. Broadly inviting those learned in antiquity, he gathered scattered writings from every quarter. Thereupon, dispersed verses and circulating chapters appeared here and there; what has now been obtained is indeed abundant.

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The Sage’s intention held that, as the Semblance and Final Dharma ages gradually decline, faith and delight increasingly wane. The passages are vast and boundless, and few are able to comprehend them fully. In the seventh year of Tianjian,

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an imperial decree ordered the monk Sengmin and others to make an exhaustive compilation of the various scriptures, revealing the evidence of profound texts and bringing together the marvelous essentials. With succinct phrasing and clear meaning, it already provided more than half the benefit to those who study and investigate. Yet rare and extraordinary phenomena remained scattered among numerous works, and secret explanations hard to hear had not yet been highlighted. Furthermore, at the end of the fifteenth year,

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an imperial decree ordered Baochang to excerpt essential matters from the sūtras and vinaya, arranging them all by category so that readers might easily understand them. In addition,

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an imperial decree instructed the monk Senghao of Xin'an Temple, the monk Fasheng of Xinghuang Temple, and others to assist in examining and reading them. Thereupon, broadly synthesizing the scriptures and choosing the secret essentials, they submitted them for imperial consideration and took his models as standard rules. In all, it comprises fifty fascicles, with an additional catalogue in five fascicles, divided into five cases, entitled *Diverse Phenomena from the Sūtras and Vinaya* (*Jinglü yixiang*). Future scholars may thus gain wide knowledge without toil.

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Section on Heavens, Part One

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The heavens of the three realms, 1;
The formation and destruction of the two realms, 2;
The length and shortness of kalpas, 3;
The sun, 4;
The moon, 5;
The stars, 6;
Thunder, 7;
Lightning, 8;
Clouds, 9;
Wind, 10;
Rain, 11.

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The Heavens of the Three Realms, Part 1

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Kāmadhātu, 1;
Rūpadhātu, 2;
Ārūpyadhātu, 3.

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The Six Heavens of the Kāmadhātu, Part 1

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Four Heavenly Kings, 1;
Trāyastriṃśa, 2;
Yāma, 3;
Tuṣita, 4;
Nirmāṇarati, 5;
Paranirmitavaśavartin, 6;
Māra Heaven, 7.

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Cāturmahārājakāyika Heaven, 1

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The Four Heavenly Kings dwell on the four projections of Mount Sumeru, all forty-two thousand yojanas high (the *Da zhidu lun* says: 'Around the four sides of Mount Sumeru there are mountains, all named Yugandhara, each forty-two thousand yojanas high; the Four Heavenly Kings govern and transform upon them'). The Heavenly King of the east is named Dhṛtarāṣṭra; his city is called Śreṣṭha. The Heavenly King of the south is named Virūḍhaka; his city is called Sudarśana. The Heavenly King of the west is named Virūpākṣa; his city is called Cūḍā (some write Zhouba, correctness uncertain).

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The Heavenly King of the north is named Vaiśravaṇa; he resides in three cities: the first is called Bhīṣaṇa, the second is called Devakānta, and the third is called Samāgamana. The bodies of the four kings are all half a yojana tall; their garments are one yojana long, half a yojana wide, and weigh two fen. The lifespan of the gods is five hundred celestial years, with few exceeding and many falling short. Fifty human years make one day and one night in this heaven; thirty such days make a month, and twelve months make a year (five hundred celestial years equal ninety thousand human years). They eat pure morsel food, and their bathing and clothing constitute fine, smooth food. Men take wives and women take husbands, engaging in sexual intercourse just as in the human world. Due to past wholesome karma of the three actions, they are now born as gods, spontaneously appearing by transformation upon the laps of gods, in size like a two-year-old human (another record says: 'Boys sit upon the father's lap, girls sit upon the mother's lap'). Not long after birth, the child spontaneously feels hunger; exquisite vessels of the seven treasures hold food of a hundred flavours. If the child has much merit, the food is naturally white; if of middling merit, the food is naturally blue; if of little merit, the food is naturally red. When the child has digested the food, if thirsty afterwards, the ambrosia in precious vessels matches the colour of the food; drinking it without retaining, it is like butter cast into fire. When their bodies grow up, they equal the gods, enter ponds to bathe, and approach fragrant trees whose branches bend down. They take fragrance to smear on their bodies, and take garments and ornaments. Garlands, precious vessels, fruits, and musical instruments each come forth from trees; they go to them everywhere, taking as they wish (the *Loutan jing* states similarly with minor variations; the extensive text is omitted here). Entering gardens and groves, countless heavenly maidens play drums, music, strings, and songs, laughing and speaking to one another. Generating deep attachment, looking west they forget the east. Amid their play and pleasure, they forget what they had remembered and known at birth, having obtained birth in heaven through the wholesome karma of prior lives (the *Loutan jing* is roughly the same). The ponds are pure and clear, with blooming flowers and luxuriant fruits. Their cities have sevenfold walls, all six thousand yojanas wide; the balustrades, nets, palace walls, and rows of trees are all sevenfold. King Vaiśravaṇa constantly has five great spirits: the first is named Rajalu, the second Daṇḍara, the third Himavanta, the fourth Tigira, and the fifth Suviloma, who constantly attend at his side. There are three purification days in each half-month: the eighth, fourteenth, and fifteenth days. On the eighth day, the Four Heavenly Kings always order their messengers: 'Inspect the world and observe whether the people are filial to their parents, respectful to śramaṇas, brāhmaṇas, and elders, and whether they uphold the precepts and practice generosity or not.' The messengers obey the command and fully report the good and the bad; hearing of evil, the kings are displeased, and hearing of good, they are glad. On the fourteenth day, the four kings always dispatch their crown princes to inspect the realm. On the fifteenth day, the four kings personally travel and inspect. Thereafter, they go to the Sudharmā hall to report fully to Śakra. Hearing of evil, he grieves; hearing of good, he rejoices, uttering verses praising those who uphold the precepts as walking together with him (from fascicle 20 of the *Dīrghāgama*, and also from the *Da zhidu lun* and the *Loutan jing*).

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Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, 2

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The Trāyastriṃśa heaven is situated on the summit of Mount Sumeru, having thirty-three heavenly palaces. The king is named Śakra Devānām Indra (in Liang language: Able to Act as King of Gods). His body is one yojana tall; his garments are two yojanas long and two yojanas wide, weighing six zhu. The lifespan of the gods is one thousand celestial years, with few exceeding and many falling short. When about to die, five signs appear: first, their clothes become soiled; second, the flowers on their heads wither; third, their bodies emit a foul smell; fourth, sweat flows from their armpits; fifth, they take no pleasure in their original seats. Seeing these five things, their minds experience great distress, like the torment of hell. Their eating, drinking, and marriage are just like those of the Four Heavenly Kings; their bodies draw close, and through air they accomplish sexual intercourse (the *San fadu lun* says they engage in desire like humans). Through wholesome deeds of body, speech, and mind, they are born into Trāyastriṃśa heaven, spontaneously appearing by transformation upon the lap of a god like a three-year-old child. The god then acknowledges it, saying: 'This is my son, my daughter.' They spontaneously remember the generosity and precept-keeping of their previous lives. When they desire food and drink, golden vessels are filled accordingly; merit has depths and food has gradations, just as in the Cāturmahārājakāyika heaven. The city is eighty thousand yojanas in length and breadth (the *Loutan jing* says three million two hundred thousand li wide and long). Its city has sevenfold walls with nine hundred and ninety-nine gates, each gate guarded by sixty blue-robed yakṣas (the *Dīrghāgama* says: 'It is sixty yojanas high; five hundred yojanas apart there is a gate, and each gate is guarded by five hundred spirits'). In the thirty-three heavens, there are golden walls with silver gates, and silver walls with golden gates; thus the seven treasures alternately form the walls and gates. Multi-storied towers and pavilions surround them on all sides; gardens, groves, bathing ponds, and precious flowers are interspersed; jewel trees stand in rows with luxuriant blossoms and fruits; fragrant breezes arise from the four quarters, gladdening people's hearts; and countless wondrous birds of different kinds sing in harmony. In the four gardens there are two stone mounds in each, each fifty yojanas in length and breadth, made of the seven treasures and as soft as heavenly garments (the account in the *Loutan jing* is similar; the extensive text is omitted here). Between the Pāruṣyaka Garden and the Nandana Garden there is Lake Nanda, one hundred yojanas in length and breadth, its water clear and pure; its sevenfold jewel moats produce four kinds of flowers: blue, yellow, red, and white, with mixed shades of pink and light green. Their fragrance diffuses everywhere and is smelled for one yojana; their roots are like chariot hubs, their juice is white as milk, and their taste is sweet as honey. Furthermore, between the Miśraka Garden and the Mahāsaṃharṣa Garden there is a tree named Pārijāta, seven yojanas in circumference and one hundred yojanas high, its branches and leaves spreading fifty yojanas in four directions, and its fragrance carried against the wind for one hundred yojanas. South of the Trāyastriṃśa palace there is yet another tree, named Pāricchatra, four thousand li high, its branches and leaves spreading two thousand li, the wind blowing the flower fragrance against the wind so that it is smelled for two thousand li. When the tree blossoms, the gods sit together beneath it for delight, roaming and amusing themselves for one hundred and twenty celestial days. Śakra has thirty-two ministers, hence they are called the thirty-three heavens. Each has a palace, all inside the city. When amusing themselves in the gardens, it always takes seven days. As for the 'Pāruṣyaka' (Rough) Garden: when entering this garden, their bodies become rough. As for the 'Citra' (Variegated) Garden: when entering this garden, their bodies naturally assume various colorful hues to delight each other. As for the 'Miśraka' (Mixed) Garden: on the eighth, fourteenth, and fifteenth days of the month, the palace maidens are always released to mingle and roam with the gods, while Śakra alone remains in one place with Śacī; hence it is called 'Mixed'. As for the 'Mahāsaṃharṣa' (Great Joy) Garden: when entering this garden, their minds experience great joy (from fascicle 20 of the *Dīrghāgama*, and also from the *Loutan jing*, the *Da zhidu lun*, the *Avataṃsaka*, and the *Nirvāṇa*).

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Yāma Heaven, 3

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The palace of the Yāma (in Liang language: Time) heaven is supported by a wind wheel in empty space. The king is named Suyāma (the *Da zhidu lun* says: Miaoshan). His body is two yojanas tall; his garments are four yojanas long and two yojanas wide, weighing three zhu, and they come forth from trees, being bright, pure, radiant, and of various colors. His body has radiance and does not rely on the sun or moon. Through wholesome actions of body, speech, and mind, or through gifts of lamps, candles, bright pearls, and the like, and through deeds such as keeping precepts and dhyāna-concentration, one is born into Yāma heaven. The lifespan of the gods is two thousand celestial years, with few exceeding and many falling short. Their eating, drinking, marriage, and sexual desire are like those in Trāyastriṃśa heaven (the *San fadu lun* says that with attached minds they embrace to accomplish sexual desire; if not deeply attached, it does not constitute pleasure). At birth, their form is like that of a four-year-old human. The radiance of Trāyastriṃśa heaven cannot reach here (from fascicle 20 of the *Dīrghāgama*, and also from the *Loutan jing*, the *Da zhidu lun*, and the *Avataṃsaka*).

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Tuṣita Heaven, 4

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The palace of the Tuṣita (in Liang language: Contentment) heaven is supported by a wind wheel in empty space. The king is named Saṃtuṣita. Bodhisattvas in their final existence are mostly born into this heaven. Because the lower heavens are heedless and the higher heavens are dull, they are born into this heaven (the *Da zhidu lun* says: 'In the lower stages the fetters are thick and turbid; in the higher stages the fetters are sharp. Only in Tuṣita heaven are they neither thick nor sharp, and wisdom is secure and tranquil. Furthermore, in the lower stages lifespan is short, and upon dying a Buddha has not yet appeared; in the higher stages lifespan is long, and before their lifespan ends a Buddha has already passed away; in Tuṣita heaven, time and lifespan are balanced. In addition, the Buddha always abides in the Middle Way, and Tuṣita heaven is the middle among the six heavens'). Their bodies are four yojanas tall; their garments are eight yojanas long and four yojanas wide, weighing one and a half zhu. The lifespan of the gods is four thousand celestial years, with few exceeding and many falling short. Their food is the same as in the lower heavens; they also have marriage, and holding hands accomplishes sexual desire. When the gods are first born, they are like five-year-old humans; they spontaneously know the generosity, precept-keeping, and other deeds performed in their previous lives. They eat spontaneous food and drink, wear robes and caps, and sing and dance. Their bodies possess radiance superior to that of Yāma (from fascicle 20 of the *Dīrghāgama*, and also from the *Avataṃsaka*, the *Nirvāṇa*, the *Loutan jing*, and the *Da zhidu lun*).

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Nirmāṇarati Heaven, 5

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The palace of the Nirmāṇarati heaven is likewise supported by a wind wheel in empty space. The king is named Sunirmita. They spontaneously transform the five sense objects to entertain themselves. Their bodies are eight yojanas tall; their garments are sixteen yojanas long and eight yojanas wide, weighing one zhu. The lifespan of the gods is eight thousand celestial years, with few exceeding and many falling short. Their food is the same as the lower [heavens]; they also have marriage, and gazing intently at each other accomplishes sexual desire (the *San fadu lun* says: 'With a deeply defiled mind, conversing with a heavenly maiden accomplishes sexual desire; if either is not defiled, it is not accomplished, being merely joy'). When the gods are first born, they are like six-year-old humans. Their radiance is superior to that of Tuṣita (from fascicle 20 of the *Dīrghāgama*, and also from the *Loutan jing* and the *Avataṃsaka*).

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Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven, 6

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The palace of the Paranirmitavaśavartin heaven is likewise upheld by a wind-wheel in empty space. The king is named Vaśavartin. He takes what has been created by others and gathers it together to entertain himself. [These devas] are named the 'body-loving devas', and in the kāmadhātu they alone attain mastery. Their bodies are sixteen yojanas in height. Their garments are thirty-two yojanas long, sixteen yojanas wide, and weigh half a zhu. The devas live for 16,000 heavenly years, with a few living longer and many dying earlier. Their food is the same as that of the heavens below. They also marry; desire is fulfilled merely by a momentary glance (the Loutan jing says: 'Desire is fulfilled merely upon thought.' The Sanfadu jing says: 'When man and deva woman each gaze at each other with deep attachment and lust, desire is fulfilled. If one of them is unattached, it is not fulfilled, but is merely joy like humans embracing. Because they view what is created by others, it is called Paranirmitavaśavartin.'). When these devas are newly born, they are like human children of seven years old and naturally know their past lives. Due to their giving, upholding precepts, and discarding evil, they naturally possess food, drink, clothing, and jade maidens, all just as before. Their radiance surpasses that of the Nirmāṇarati [heaven] (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama; also from the Avataṃsaka, Da zhidu lun, and Loutan jing).

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Seventh: Māra Heaven

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The palace of Māra heaven is located midway between the two realms of desire and form. 'Māra' is likened to a millstone, grinding down and destroying merit. It is six thousand yojanas in length and breadth, with sevenfold palace walls. All of its adornments are like those of the heavens below. It possesses ten dharmas: first, they fly away in limitless numbers; second, they fly here in limitless numbers; third, their going is unimpeded; fourth, their coming is unimpeded; fifth, the heavenly bodies have no skin, bone marrow, sinews, blood, or flesh; sixth, their bodies are free of impurities, urine, and excrement; seventh, their bodies suffer no exhaustion; eighth, the deva women do not give birth; ninth, the deva eyes do not blink; tenth, their bodies appear in whatever color they wish—if blue, then blue; if yellow, then yellow; if red or white, whatever multitude of colors they wish, appearing as they please. These are the ten dharmas of this heaven. It also possesses ten upheld attributes: first, flying without limit; second, coming and going without limit; third, the devas have no robbers or thieves; fourth, they do not speak of their own good deeds, nor do they speak of the evils of others; fifth, they do not violate one another; sixth, the devas' teeth are even and continuous; seventh, their hair is dark blue, sleek, and eighty feet long; eighth, if a deva has blue hair, the body is also blue; ninth, if one wishes to be white, the body immediately becomes white; tenth, if one wishes to be black, the body immediately becomes black (from the eighteenth and thirtieth fascicles of the Dīrgha Āgama; also from the Loutan jing and Da zhidu lun).

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Second: The Twenty-Three Heavens of the Rūpadhātu

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1. Brahmakāyika Heaven
2. Brahmapurohita Heaven
3. Brahmapāriṣadya Heaven
4. Mahābrahmā Heaven
5. Ābha Heaven
6. Parīttābha Heaven
7. Apramāṇābha Heaven
8. Ābhāsvara Heaven
9. Śubha Heaven
10. Parīttaśubha Heaven
11. Apramāṇaśubha Heaven
12. Śubhakṛtsna Heaven
13. Alaṃkṛta Heaven
14. Parīttālaṃkṛta Heaven
15. Apramāṇālaṃkṛta Heaven
16. Alaṃkṛtaphalaphala Heaven
17. Asaṃjñasattva Heaven
18. Avṛha Heaven
19. Atapa Heaven
20. Sudṛśa Heaven
21. Sudarśana Heaven
22. Akaniṣṭha Heaven
23. Maheśvara Heaven

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First: Brahmakāyika Heaven

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The palace of the Brahmakāyika heaven. The palace is pure gold, and their bodies are the color of white silver (this is so for all the rūpadhātu). They wear golden garments. They practice dhyāna, abandon desire, and cultivate the fire-radiance samādhi; therefore, wonderful light emanates from their bodies, surpassing the sun and moon. They are neither male nor female. They take the joy of dhyāna as their food. Their lifespan is one kalpa, though some live less. Their bodies are half a yojana tall, and their lifespan is half a kalpa (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama).

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Second: Brahmapurohita Heaven

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Brahmapurohita heaven (the numerical list calls it 'Fuluo') is the same as the preceding heaven. Those who cultivate the intermediate dhyāna are born in this place of noble Brahmās. Their bodies are one yojana tall, and their lifespan is one kalpa (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama).

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Third: Brahmapāriṣadya Heaven

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Brahmapāriṣadya heaven is the same as the preceding heaven. It is the place of birth for the lesser Brahmās who cultivate the lower dhyāna. Their bodies are one and a half yojanas tall, and their lifespan is one and a half kalpas (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama).

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Fourth: Mahābrahmā Heaven

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The king of Mahābrahmā heaven is named Śikhin (in Liang language: 'Huo-yi' [Fire Ended]), and [this heaven] is the same as the preceding one. Those who cultivate the superior dhyāna are born here. Within the assembly of Brahmā he produces a great voice, and none in the great assembly fails to hear it. The devas of the Brahmā realm each think to themselves: 'The Mahābrahmā heavenly king speaks only with me, and does not interact with others. I have attained this naturally, without receiving it from anywhere. Throughout the thousand worlds, I am the most sovereign, rich, and abundant, able to create the myriad things. I am the father and mother of all sentient beings, the foremost and most respected among all the subsequent Brahmās.' His visage is like a young boy, and he is named Kumāra. He holds a rooster, grasps a bell, carries a red banner, and rides a peacock. The first dhyāna is called Brahmakāyika. Its palace is twice the distance in yojanas from the palace of Paranirmitavaśavartin (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama, the Avataṃsaka, Loutan jing, and Da zhidu lun. The Za abhidharma-hṛdaya says: 'There are seventeen abodes in the rūpadhātu; the lower three dhyānas each have three heavens, and the fourth dhyāna has nine heavens, which should total eighteen, but because the lowest heaven of the first dhyāna consists of the servants of the Brahmās, it is not counted; the first dhyāna has no Brahmakāyika, the second dhyāna has no Ābha, and the third dhyāna has no Śubha.').

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Fifth: Ābha Heaven

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Ābha heaven. They take the taste of dhyāna as their food. Their lifespan is two kalpas, though some live less (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama).

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Sixth: Parīttābha Heaven

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Parīttābha is roughly the same as the preceding [heaven] (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama; the *Vibhāṣā* chapter says: 'When speaking, their mouths emit a small amount of light.').

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Seventh: Apramāṇābha Heaven

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Apramāṇābha is roughly the same as the preceding [heaven] (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama; the *Vibhāṣā* chapter says: 'When speaking, their mouths emit much light.').

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Eighth: Ābhāsvara Heaven

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Ābhāsvara heaven (the *Vibhāṣā* chapter says: 'Bright Light Heaven; when speaking, their mouths emit boundless pure light'). The king is named Joyous Light (the Loutan jing calls it the Api-fu heaven; bodhisattvas also call it Light Mindfulness, or Light Sound). Observing the foul and wretched stench of Jambudvīpa ascending to reek for seven hundred million li, bodhisattvas therefore are not born in Ābhāsvara (the Dīrgha Āgama says: 'One hundred yojanas up in heaven, the foul stench can be smelled from afar, worse than a latrine.'). The second dhyāna is collectively termed Ābhāsvara. Its palace is twice the distance in yojanas from the Brahmakāyika palace (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama; also from the Avataṃsaka, Da zhidu lun, and Pusa chutai jing).

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Ninth: Śubha Heaven

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Śubha heaven. They take the joy of dhyāna as their food. Their lifespan is three kalpas, though some live less (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama).

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Tenth: Parīttaśubha Heaven

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Parīttaśubha is roughly the same as the preceding [heaven] (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama; the *Vibhāṣā* chapter says: 'These three heavens together practice dhyāna associated with the joy free from affliction, and are born in these three kinds of heavens. By dhyāna associated with minor skillful means, one is born in the Parīttaśubha heaven, and the joy experienced is also lesser.').

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Eleventh: Apramāṇaśubha Heaven

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Apramāṇaśubha is roughly the same as the preceding [heaven] (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama; the *Vibhāṣā* chapter says: 'One is born in this heaven through middling skillful means.').

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Twelfth: Śubhakṛtsna Heaven

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Śubhakṛtsna heaven (the Sanskrit is Weixi; the *Vibhāṣā* chapter says: 'One is born in this heaven through superior skillful means'). The king is named Pure Wisdom. He has four arms holding implements and grasping a wheel, and he rides a garuḍa. The third dhyāna is collectively termed Śubhakṛtsna; it is also called Shutuojin. Its palace is twice the distance in yojanas from the Ābhāsvara palace (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama; also from the Loutan jing and Da zhidu lun).

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Thirteenth: Alaṃkṛta Heaven

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Alaṃkṛta heaven. They take the joy of dhyāna as their food. Their lifespan is forty thousand kalpas, though some live less (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama).

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Fourteenth: Parīttālaṃkṛta Heaven

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Parīttālaṃkṛta is roughly the same as the preceding [heaven] (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama).

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Fifteenth: Apramāṇālaṃkṛta Heaven

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Apramāṇālaṃkṛta is roughly the same as the preceding [heaven] (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama).

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Sixteenth: Alaṃkṛtaphalaphala Heaven

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Alaṃkṛtaphalaphala heaven. The king is named Radiant Flower of the Dharma. The fourth dhyāna is collectively termed Phalaphala. Its palace is twice the distance in yojanas from the Śubhakṛtsna palace (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama; also from the Avataṃsaka).

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Seventeenth: Asaṃjñasattva Heaven

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Asaṃjñasattva heaven (the Loutan jing calls it 'No-Human-Perception'). They take the joy of dhyāna as their food. Their lifespan is five hundred kalpas, though some live less, still counted within the rūpadhātu. Their radiance surpasses that of Phalaphala. Heterodox practitioners mistake it for nirvāṇa (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama; the *Vibhāṣā* chapter says: 'Destroying perceptions, they are born into non-perception, possessing only the form aggregate and the mental formations aggregate; once a slight perception enters and arises, they then die.').

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Eighteenth: Avṛha Heaven

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Avṛha heaven (the Dīrgha Āgama calls it 'Wuzao' [Uncreated]; the Loutan jing calls it 'Abipi'). They take the joy of dhyāna as their food. Their lifespan is one thousand kalpas, though some live less. Their radiance surpasses that of Asaṃjñasattva (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama).

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Nineteenth: Atapa Heaven

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Atapa heaven. Their bodies are four thousand yojanas tall, so fine and supple that they trail on the ground, unable to stand on their own. When descending to see the Buddha, they transform into coarse forms. They take dhyāna as their nourishment. The heavenly lifespan is two thousand kalpas, though some live less. Their radiance surpasses that of Avṛha (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama).

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Twentieth: Sudṛśa Heaven

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Sudṛśa (the Avataṃsaka calls it 'Good Sight'; the Loutan jing calls it 'Shutuozhan'). Their bodies are four thousand yojanas tall. They likewise take the joy of dhyāna as their food. Their lifespan is three thousand kalpas (the Sancheng mingshu jing says the lifespan is four thousand kalpas), though some live less. Their radiance surpasses that of Atapa (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama).

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Twenty-First: Sudarśana Heaven

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Sudarśana (the Avataṃsaka calls it 'Good Sight'; the Loutan jing calls it 'Xumizhanni'). Their bodies are eight thousand yojanas tall. They likewise take the joy of dhyāna as their food. Their lifespan is four thousand kalpas (the Sancheng mingshu jing says eight thousand kalpas), though some live less. Their radiance surpasses that of Sudṛśa (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama).

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Twenty-Second: Akaniṣṭha Heaven

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Akaniṣṭha heaven (the Avataṃsaka sūtra is the same; the Loutan jing calls it 'Ajiani-zha'). Their bodies are sixteen thousand yojanas tall. They likewise take the joy of dhyāna as their food. Their lifespan is five thousand kalpas (the Sancheng mingshu jing says sixteen thousand kalpas), though some live less. These five heavens are collectively named the Pure Abodes (Śuddhāvāsa), where the anāgāmins dwell. Their radiance is the most supreme (from the twentieth fascicle of the Dīrgha Āgama; also from the Loutan jing, Avataṃsaka, and Da zhidu lun).

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Twenty-Third: Maheśvara Heaven

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Maheśvara heaven (in Liang language: 'Great Sovereign'), also named Pure Abode. Passing beyond the five Pure Abodes there are eight places, all of which are empty and silent. This is the dwelling place of the Mahāsattvas of the ten abodes. Bodhisattvas of the Dharma Cloud stage often become the king of this heaven. In form, he has eight arms and three eyes, and rides a great white bull. When a great cloud pours down rain upon the great trichiliocosm, no sentient being can know the count [of drops]; only this heavenly king alone is able to know it (the Nirvāṇa Sūtra says: 'If a person makes offerings to Maheśvara, know that this person has made offerings to all the devas.' The Loutan jing says: 'Above the Ābhāsvara heaven there is no king.' From the second fascicle of the Da zhidu lun).

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Third: The Four Heavens of the Ārūpyadhātu

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The Base of Boundless Space (ākāśānantyāyatana), also called the Wisdom Heaven of the Base of Space. Lifespan is ten thousand kalpas, though some live slightly less (from the Saṃyukta Āgama; the Loutan jing calls it 'Empty Space Wisdom Heaven').

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The Base of Boundless Consciousness (vijñānānantyāyatana), also called the Wisdom Heaven of the Base of Consciousness. The heavenly lifespan is twenty-one thousand kalpas, or slightly less (from the Saṃyukta Āgama; the Loutan jing calls it 'Consciousness-Knowing Heaven'). The Base of Nothingness (ākiṃcanyāyatana), also called the Wisdom Heaven of the Base of Nothingness, or the Base of Non-Possession. There was Udraka [Rāmaputra], who did not accept the Buddha's conversion and passed away on his own; the Buddha prophesied that this man would be born in the Base of Non-Possession, and that upon discarding that body he would become a border-land king and harm people, afterwards being born into hell. The heavenly lifespan is forty-two thousand kalpas, though some live slightly less (from the Dīrgha and Ekottarika Āgamas; the Loutan jing calls it 'Ajierenran Heaven').

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The base of neither perception nor non-perception, also called the heaven of perception and non-perception. There was [Udraka] Rāmaputra, who did not accept the Buddha's transformation and passed away. The Buddha predicted that he would be born in the heaven of perception and non-perception, and that afterwards he would again become a winged vicious flying-fox, so that neither flying [birds] nor walking beasts could escape him; and upon the end of that life, he would be born in hell. The life span in this heaven is eighty-four thousand kalpas, or slightly less. (From the Saṃyuktāgama and Ekottarikāgama; the Loutan jing says: Above, there is a heaven named "No-perception, thinking, and also having thoughts heaven".)

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Section 2: The Formation and Destruction of the Three Realms

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The Three Minor Disasters, Part 1 (also called the three minor kalpas, and also called the three intermediate kalpas)
The Three Major Disasters, Part 2 (also called the three major kalpas)

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The Three Minor Disasters, Part 1

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At the beginning of the kalpa, human life spanned forty thousand years; later it gradually decreased until it ceased at one hundred years; and gradually it diminished further until it reached ten years (the Za xin tong xiaojie jing chao says twelve-plus years), when females were married off at five months of age. At the time of ten years, they are called the three minor kalpas: first, the sword and weapon; second, famine (the Dīrghāgama calls it dearness of grain); third, pestilence. In the kalpa of swords and weapons, people are mostly greedy and crude, practicing the ten unwholesome deeds. If someone performs a single good deed, all mock them together, deeming them fools and vying to bully and destroy them. They imitate one another in doing evil, and there is not a single wholesome person. The five grains do not grow, and delicious flavors vanish. Silk, gauze, and karpāsa cotton naturally disappear. They only eat tares and wild grass, and weave grass for clothing. The seven treasures sink away, and sand and stones fill the land. The earth sprouts thistles and thorns; branches and leaves, large and small, are all swords; tall trees topple and break; the ground is entirely gullies and pits; surging waves collapse the riverbanks; rivers gradually widen and flat ground gradually diminishes. Once swords and weapons arise, it lasts for seven days. What they hold in their hands—grass, wood, tiles, and stones—all turn into swords and knives. They plunder one another, trembling with fear and desiring only to kill each other, just like a hunter coming across a herd of deer. Among them, the wise hide far away in mountain valleys uninhabited by people, eating fruit and drinking water to survive the ten years (the Dīrghāgama says they freely emerge back into the human realm after seven days). Those who are completely killed off are born in hell. This is called the kalpa of swords and weapons.

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In the kalpa of famine, people are mostly unlawful, foolish, and holding wrong views. They are stingy, greedy, jealous, and guard their wealth without giving. Floods and droughts are untimely, and planted fields yield no harvest. Rice and grains gradually run out, and grains of food become shockingly expensive. They sweep and gather chaff and husks, and fallen leaves from streets and lanes, to sustain their lives. When chaff and leaves are exhausted, they dig into the earth to eat the roots of grass and trees. Those unable to find food die first. They cut up dead corpses and eat them together. When corpses are depleted, they go to slaughterhouses, and even pick up various skeletons in graveyards, boiling them for broth to drink and thereby sustain their lives. Those who starve to death are all born among the hungry ghosts. This is called the minor kalpa of famine. In the kalpa of pestilence, all people hold right views and practice the ten wholesome deeds. Illnesses are numerous, yet there are no other means or remedies, and little medicine. Although they practice many wholesome deeds, they cannot ward off [calamity]; having little merit, they die whenever they fall ill. Spirits arrive together to afflict, beat, and strike them with staves, throwing their minds into confusion, seizing their vital spirits, and killing them off. When human life ends, all are born in the heavens. This is called the kalpa of pestilence. If one can keep the precept against killing for a single day and night, one will never be born into the kalpa of swords and weapons. If one offers a single harītakī fruit to the Saṃgha, one will never be born into the kalpa of pestilence. If one offers a single meal to the Saṃgha, one will never be born into the kalpa of famine. These evil kalpas alternate in this Jambudvīpa, while in other regions they are slight. When the kalpa of swords and weapons arises here, they only have severe anger; when the kalpa of pestilence arises here, they only have weakened physical strength; when the kalpa of famine arises here, they only experience a minor thirst and lack. (From the Dīrghāgama, fascicle 22; also from the San xiaojie jing chao; also from the Za xin, fascicle 14.)

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The Three Major Disasters, Part 2

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From the beginning to the end of heaven and earth is called one kalpa. When the kalpa is exhausted and comes to destruction, the disaster of fire is about to arise. All the people turn their backs on the correct and incline toward the deviant, vying to practice the ten unwholesome deeds. For a long time it does not rain from heaven, and what has been planted does not grow. All the springs and water sources, up to the four great swift rivers, all dry up completely. After a very long time, wind enters the seabed, takes the great city-wall on the sun, and places it in its original path beside Mount Sumeru. (The Abhidharmasāra states: 'At the time when the kalpa is destroyed, there are seven sun discs dwelling on Mount Yugandhara and coming forth from there. It is also said that one sun is divided into seven suns. It is also said that they come forth from Avīci hell, brought about by the karmic power of sentient beings.') When the first sun comes out, the hundreds of grasses, trees, and woods wither and fall all at once. When the second sun comes out, within the four great oceans, from a hundred yojanas up to seven hundred yojanas, the waters naturally dry up. When the third sun comes out, within the four great oceans, from a thousand yojanas up to seven thousand yojanas, the waters progressively vanish and dry up. When the fourth sun comes out, the four great oceans are only a thousand yojanas deep. When the fifth sun comes out, the four great oceans remain only seven hundred yojanas across, and eventually run dry completely. When the sixth sun comes out, this earth, sixty-eight thousand yojanas thick, entirely emits smoke. From Mount Sumeru up to the three-thousand great-thousand lands and the eight hells, there are none that are not burned away, leaving nothing but smoke and ashes. As their lives end, the people all rely on Mount Sumeru. The five kinds of devas—the Trāyastriṃśa heaven, the Yāma heaven, up to the Paranirmitavaśavartin heaven—all end their lives, and their palaces are all emptied. All is impermanent; none can remain long. When the seventh sun comes out, the great earth and Mount Sumeru gradually collapse and shatter; for a hundred yojanas, nothing ever remains. Metals like gold, silver, copper, and iron all melt and liquefy, gradually drying up, and the mountains are entirely consumed by fire. The various jewels burst and split, tumbling down with thunderous crashes, and the smoke and flames shake and vibrate up to the Brahma heaven. All the evil destinies and the asuras are utterly swept away. When their sins come to an end and their merits arrive, they all assemble above the fifteenth heaven. From the fourteenth down, all become flame and soot. The newly born devaputras have never seen this, and all harbor terror. The older devaputras each come to console them: 'Do not produce fear; it will never reach here.' When their lives end, the people are born in the Ābhāsvara heaven, taking thought as food, their radiance self-illuminating, flying with supernatural powers. Or they are born in other lands; or if they are born in the hells, once their hell sins are ended, they are also born in heaven. If their sins are not yet ended, they are also born in heaven [or] if their sins are not yet ended, they are transferred to other regions. There are no sun, moon, or constellations, nor day or night; there is only great darkness. This is called the fire kalpa, the disaster of fire. Causes, conditions, and retributions bring about this destruction. When the kalpa is about to form, the fire then extinguishes of itself. Further, great clouds arise, gradually sending down great rain, the drops like axle-trees. At this time, within this three-thousand great-thousand land, water fills everywhere up to the Brahma heaven. (The Abhidharmasāra states: 'That which the disaster of water destroys reaches up to the second dhyāna. Water rains down from the third dhyāna as hot ashy water. It is also said that the water disc emerges.') This is called the water kalpa, the disaster of water. Furthermore, there are four winds that hold the water so it does not disperse: the first is called Abiding, the second is called Assisting, the third is called Unmoving, and the fourth is called Firm. After hundreds of billions of years, the foam upon the water transforms into a thousand palaces of the fourteenth heaven, all made of various jewels. As the water gradually recedes, blown and stirred by the vairaṃbha wind, successively it turns into the various heavens beneath heaven, as well as the palaces of the sun and moon. Next, it makes a thousand Mount Sumerus, and successively up to the lands of a thousand four continents; the mountains, rivers, cities, and ponds are pure and clean upon the water. The heavenly palaces made first were formed of various jewels, and their radiance was supreme; gradually diminishing, it became ever more turbid. The radiance of the seven jewels of the heavenly palaces became gradually lower and inferior. When the earth was about to be exposed, the water and sand flowed swiftly, racing downwards to follow the lower parts, and thus became streams and rivers flowing into the ocean. The ocean is eighty-four thousand yojanas deep, and its breadth is boundless. (The Loutan jing says it is 8,400,000 yojanas deep.) Mount Sumeru is in the midst of the ocean, emerging eighty-four thousand yojanas out of the sea. The taste of the water is salty and bitter. When the kalpa first forms, clouds naturally arise up to the Ābhāsvara heaven, everywhere raining down to wash the heavenly palaces, sweeping away all the impure juices of the myriad things, which flow down into the sea and make it salty and bitter. Furthermore, there is a great ṛṣi who cursed it to be salty and bitter so that people would not drink it. Furthermore, there are assorted kinds of sentient beings living in it, excreting and urinating in it, so that it becomes salty and bitter. This is called the wind kalpa, the disaster of wind. (The Abhidharmasāra says: 'That which the disaster of wind destroys reaches up to the third dhyāna; ten billion four-continents are simultaneously destroyed.') These three together with the earth are the four disasters and the four kalpas. Excluding the earth, the remaining three are explained as the great kalpas. As for what surpasses the kalpa of the earth element: the reach of the kalpa's destruction has only never reached the fourth dhyāna, because it consists of the Śuddhāvāsa heavens; there is no higher plane to be born into, so right there they attain nirvāṇa and do not descend to be born [below]. Because they do not decrease by count, they transform into heaven and earth. Heaven and earth begin anew, vast and empty, completely void of anything, with neither sun nor moon. A sweet spring wells up from the earth, tasting like butter and honey. At that time, the devas of Ābhāsvara—some coming to be born because their merit was exhausted, some enjoying looking at the new land and having an impulsive nature—tasted it with a finger. In this way, tasting it two and three times, they gradually appreciated its flavor. Eating it without cease, they gradually grew coarse flesh, lost their heavenly wondrous complexion, supernatural powers, and radiance, and fell into great, pitch-black darkness. Later, a great black wind blew that seawater, wafting out the sun and moon, placing them beside Sumeru and setting them in the solar path, circling Mount Sumeru to illuminate the four continents. At that time, when those people saw them appear they rejoiced, and when they saw them set they were afraid. From this time on, day and night, the last day and the first day of the lunar month, the seasons and the counting of years, suddenly began again. Those who ate much of it gradually developed ugly complexions, while those who ate little still retained a wondrous complexion. Beauty and ugliness, good looks and repulsive looks, gradually arose; arrogance and jealousy arose in turn; resentment and contention followed one after another without end. The sweet spring dried up of itself, and earth-fat grew on the ground, its taste fragrant and delicious like amṛta. At that time, all the sentient beings again ate it together. Those who ate much of it suddenly lost their majestic radiance, their bodies grew heavy, and they developed bones; those who ate little had light bodies without burdens, and could still fly. When the heavy ones saw this, they all wailed loudly, saying: 'We are in dire straits, dwelling in this world!' Disputes over right and wrong grew twice as severe as before. Sustained by eating the earth-fat, they looked at each other's complexions; those with much desire transformed into women, loved and attached to one another, and eventually engaged in sexual misconduct. Thus it spread. The remaining Ābhāsvara devas, seeing the devaputras all fallen, came together to scold them, saying: 'Why are you practicing impure conduct?' The earth-fat gradually sank into the soil, and non-glutinous rice grew spontaneously, clean and skinless, both fragrant and delicious. Those who ate it became plump and fair; harvested in the morning, it grew back by evening. People gradually became lazy and took several days' supply at once, indulging their passions and desires without restriction. The women conceived and gave birth to further sentient beings. When the other people saw this, they drove them away and expelled them, sending them outside the community of people, allowing them to return after three months. Learning to feel shame, they together devised a expedient measure: gathering grasses and trees, they erected dwellings to conceal their bodies and make them unseen by others. Practicing and indulging in sexual desire, it increased in this way. They gathered much grain as stored provisions. As they imitated each other like this, the non-glutinous rice became wild and defiled, gradually growing chaff and husk; once reaped, it would not grow back. Sentient beings, seeing this, were greatly distressed: 'A great disaster has come upon the world, and the non-glutinous rice is no longer as it was!' Each thought to themselves: 'When I was originally born, I took thought as food, flew with supernatural powers, and had self-illuminating radiance. Dwelling in this indolence, it has reached the present state!' Again they said to one another: 'Let us now divide the land together and set up distinct boundary markers.' The marking of borders began from this. Concealing their own share, they stole other people's grain. The owner of the grain saw it and said: 'Now I forgive your crime; do not do it again later.' As this grew more frequent, the reprimands doubled. When reprimands did not stop it, they laid hands on them, and reported to the multitude, saying: 'This person is a thief!' The thief also said: 'This person struck me!' When the multitude saw this, they were sorrowful and unhappy. They all gathered in an assembly and discussed: 'Sentient beings are becoming increasingly evil. This is the origin of birth, old age, sickness, and death, the afflictions and bitter retributions of falling into the three evil destinies. It is because of having fields and land that this contention has arisen. Now, would it not be better if we together appoint one person who is wise and of high talent as master, to govern them according to law—to protect those who should be protected, to reprimand those who should be reprimanded, and to banish those who should be banished? We shall pool rice together to supply him.' They selected one who was worthy, discerning, handsome in form, and possessed of majesty and virtue, and spoke to him, saying: 'Be our impartial master!' He comforted them with good words, and the multitude all rejoiced. Thereupon they hailed him together, saying: 'Excellent, Great King!' He then ruled the people with the true Dharma, and was called a kṣatriya. These were all ancient laws. Later, when people encroached upon others' property, they would be punished. When they committed it repeatedly, they instituted floggings and beatings. Since whips and canes still could not stop it, they also made prisons, knives, staves, and the like, torturing and executing to make them harbor fear. At that time, there was a person who considered the home to have many perils, like a poisonous thorn; abandoning wife and child, he dwelt alone in the mountain forests, erected a thatched hut, quietly gathered his purpose, and practiced the brahma conduct; he was called a brāhmaṇa. Later, among the brāhmaṇas there were those who took no pleasure in quietude, sitting in meditation, and contemplation; they then entered among men, taking reciting and studying as their occupation, and also called themselves: 'I am a non-dhyāna person.' Thereupon the worldly people called them 'non-dhyāna brāhmaṇas.' At that time, among the sentient beings there were people who liked managing household property and accumulating much wealth and treasure; they were called householders (gṛhapati). There were also those who were very fond of crafts and skills; they were called śūdras. There were also those who detested worldly phenomena of themselves, shaved off their hair and beards, put on the Dharma robes, and cultivated the Path; they were called śramaṇas. At that time, people harbored killing and theft, and had lost the non-glutinous rice. They established five kinds of seeds: first, root seeds; second, leaf seeds; third, flower seeds; fourth, fruit seeds; fifth, stem-born and remaining seeds. These are called the five kinds of seeds. They were all seeds from lands in other directions blown by the wind to aid the sentient beings of this country. Such are the signs: there are birth, old age, sickness, and death, and there are the five clinging-aggregates, with no end to the limits of suffering. At the end of the water kalpa, the devas of Ābhāsvara entered the water to bathe. The subtle energies of the four great elements entered within their bodies; pleasurable touch arose in their bodies, and their essence flowed into the water. Blown and stirred by the eight winds, it fell into the silt, naturally forming an egg. After eight thousand years, the egg opened, giving birth to a woman. Her form was dark blue-black like silt; she had nine hundred and ninety-nine heads, a thousand eyes, and nine hundred and ninety-nine mouths. Each mouth had four fangs, and atop the fangs came forth fire resembling lightning. She had twenty-four hands, and in her hands she held all kinds of weapons. Her body was tall and large like Mount Sumeru. She entered the great ocean, clapping the water to amuse herself. There was a whirlwind blowing the ocean water; the water essence entered her body, and she became pregnant. After eight thousand years, she then gave birth to a son. His body was tall and large, four times surpassing his mother. The boy had nine heads, each head with a thousand eyes, and fire issued from his mouths. He had nine hundred and ninety-nine hands and eight legs. In the ocean water, he named himself: 'I am the Asura King Vimalacitra.' He ate only silt and lotus roots. The transformations at the initial formation of the earth kalpa were like this. (Extracted from the Ekottarika Āgama, fascicle thirty-two; also extracted from the Dīrgha Āgama, fascicle six; also from the summary of the Small Chapter on Kalpas; also extracted from the Guanfo sanmei jing, fascicle two.) When the kalpa is burned completely away, all is void. Due to the power of the causes and conditions of sentient beings' merits, winds from the ten directions arrive; wind following wind in succession can support the great water. Above, there is a person with a thousand heads and two thousand hands and feet, named Viṣṇu. From this person's navel grows a thousand-petaled golden lotus flower, its light greatly radiant like ten thousand suns shining. Within the flower, there is a person sitting cross-legged; this person also has immeasurable radiance, and is named King Brahmā. He directly gave birth to eight sons; the eight sons gave birth to heaven, earth, and the people. This King Brahmā has already eliminated lust and anger, and sits upon the lotus flower. The Buddhas, following conventional customs, manifest atop the jeweled lotus flower, sitting cross-legged and expounding the six pāramitās. Those who hear this Dharma will certainly reach anuttarasamyaksaṃbodhi. (Extracted from the Various Avadāna Parables, fascicle six.)

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