The Institutes of Akbar 73: AIN 34. · THE ARTS OF WRITING AND PAINTING.
The Áín i Akbari (Blochmann, Jarrett) 73
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AIN 34. · THE ARTS OF WRITING AND PAINTING.
73.1
What we call form leads us to recognize a body; the body itself leads us to what we call a notion, an idea. Thus on seeing the form of a letter, we recognize the letter, or a word, and this again will lead us to some idea. Similarly in the case of what people term a picture. But though it is true that painters, especially those of Europe, succeed in drawing figures expressive of the conceptions which the artist has of any of the mental states, so much so, that people may mistake a picture for a reality: yet pictures are much inferior to the written letter, inasmuch as the letter may embody the wisdom of bygone ages, and become a means to intellectual progress.
73.2
I shall first say something about the art of writing, as it is the more important of the two arts. His Majesty pays much attention to both, and is an excellent judge of form and thought. And indeed, in the eyes of the friends of true beauty, a letter is the source from which the light confined within it beams forth; and in the opinion of the far-sighted, it is the world-reflecting cup in the abstract. The letter, a magical power, is spiritual geometry emanating from the pen of invention; a heavenly writ from the hand of fate; it contains the secret of the word, and is the tongue of the hand. The spoken word goes to the hearts of such as are present to hear it; the letter gives wisdom to those that are near and far. If it was not for the letter, the spoken word would soon die, and no keepsake would be left us of those that are gone by. Superficial observers see in the letter a sooty figure; but the deepsighted, a lamp of wisdom. The written letter looks black, notwithstanding the thousand rays within it; or, it is a light with a mole on it that wards off the evil eye. A letter is the portrait painter of wisdom; a rough sketch from the realm of ideas; a dark night ushering in day; a black cloud pregnant with knowledge; the wand for the treasures of insight; speaking, though dumb; stationary, and yet travelling; stretched on the sheet, and yet soaring upwards.
73.3
When a ray of God’s knowledge falls on man’s soul, it is carried by the mind to the realm of thought, which is the intermediate station between that which is conscious of individual existence (mujarrad) and that which is material (maddí). The result is a concrete thing mixed with the absolute, or an absolute thing mixed with that which is concrete. This compound steps forward on man’s tongue, and enters, with the assistance of the conveying air, into the windows of the ears of others. It then drops the burden of its concrete component, and returns as a single ray, to its old place, the realm of thought. But the heavenly traveller occasionally gives his course a different direction by means of man’s fingers, and having passed along the continent of the pen and crossed the ocean of the ink, alights on the pleasant expanse of the page, and returns through the eye of the reader to its wonted habitation. As the letter is a representation of an articulate sound, I think it necessary to give some information regarding the latter.
73.4
The sound of a letter is a mode of existence depending on the nature of the air. By qara' we mean the striking together of two hard substances; and by qala', the separation of the same. In both cases the intermediate air, like a wave, is set in motion; and thus the state is produced which we call sound. Some philosophers take sound to be the secondary effect, and define it as the air set in motion; but others look upon it as the primary effect, i. e., they define sound to be the very qara', or the qala', of any hard substances. Sound may be accompanied by modifying circumstances: it may be piano, deep, nasal, or guttural, as when the throat is affected by a cold. Again, from the nature of the organ with which man utters a sound, and the manner in which the particles of the air are divided, another modifying circumstance may arise, as when two piano, two deep, two nasal, or two guttural sounds separate from each other. Some, as Abú 'Alí Síná, call this modifying element ('áriz) the sound of the letter; others define it as the original state of the sound thus modified (ma'rúz); but the far-sighted define an articulate sound as the union of the modifying element and the original state modified. This is evidently the correct view.
73.5
There are fifty-two articulate sounds in Hindí, so and so many in Greek, and eighteen in Persian. In Arabic, there are twenty-eight letters represented by eighteen signs, or by only fifteen, when we count the joined letters, and if we take the Hamzah as one with the Alif. The reason for writing an Alif and a Lám, (لا) separately at the end of the single letters in the Arabic Alphabet, is merely to give an example of a sákin letter, which must necessarily be joined to another letter; and the reason why the letter Lám is preferred as an example, is because the letter Lám is the middle letter of the word alif, and the letter alif the middle letter of the word Lám. The vowel-signs did not exist in ancient times, instead of which letters were dotted with a different kind of ink; thus a red dot placed over a letter expressed that the letter was followed by an a; a red dot in front of the letter signified an u; and a red dot below a letter, an i. It was Khalíl ibn i Ahmad, the famous inventor of the Metrical Art of the Arabians, who fixed the forms of the vowel-signs as they are now in use.
73.6
The beauty of a letter and its proportions depend much on personal taste; hence it is that nearly every people has a separate alphabet. Thus we find an Indian, Syriac, Greek, Hebrew, Coptic, Ma’qalí, Kúfí, Kashmírí, Abyssinian, Raihání, Arabic, Persian, Himyaritic, Berbery, Andalusian, Ríhání, and several other ancient systems of writing. The invention of the Hebrew characters is traced in some poems to Adam i Hafthazárí; but some mention Idrís as the inventor. Others, however, say that Idrís perfected the Ma’qalí character. According to several statements, the Kúfic character was derived by the Khalífah ’Alí from the Ma’qalí. The difference in the form of a letter in the several systems, lies in the proportion of straight and round strokes: thus the Kúfic character consists of one-sixth curvature and five-sixths straight lines; the Ma’qalí has no curved lines at all; hence the inscriptions which are found on ancient buildings are mostly in this character. In writing we have to remember that black and white look well, as these colours best prevent ambiguities in reading.
73.7
In Írán and Túrán, India, and Turkey, there are eight calligraphical systems current, of which each one is liked by some people. Six of them were derived, in A. H. 310, by Ibn i Muqlah from the Ma’qalí and the Kúfic characters, viz., the Suls, Taugí’, Muhaqqaq, Naskh, Raihán, Riqá’. Some add the Ghubár, and say that this seventh character had likewise been invented by him. The Naskh character is ascribed by many to Yáqút, a slave of the Khalifah Musta’cam Billah. The Suls and the Naskh consist each of one-third curved lines, and two-thirds straight lines; the former (the suls) is jali, whilst the latter (the naskh) is khaft. The Tauqi’ and Riqa’ consist of three-fourths curved lines, and one-fourth straight lines; the former is jali, the latter is khaft. The Muhaqqaq and Raihan contain three-fourths straight lines; the former, as in the preceding, is jali, and the Raihan khaft. Among famous copyists I must mention ’Ali ibn i Hilal, better known under the name of Ibn i Bawwab; he wrote well the six characters. Yaqut brought them to perfection. Six of Yaqut’s pupils are noticeable; 1. Shaikh Ahmad, so well known under the name of Shaikhzadah i Suhrwardi; 2. Arghun of Kabul; 3. Maulana Yusuf Shah of Mashhad; 4. Maulana Mubarik Shah, styled Zarrin qalam (the golden pen); 5. Haidar, called Gandahnawis (i. e., the writer of the jali); 6. Mir Yahya.
73.8
The following caligraphists are likewise well known: Cufi Nasrullah, also called Cadri ’Iraqi; Arghun ’Abdullah; Khwajah ’Abdullah i Qairafi; Haji Muhammad; Maulana ’Abdullah i Ashpaz; Maulana Muhi of Shiraz; Mu’inuddin i Tanuri; Shamsuddin i Khatai; ’Abdurrahim i Khalili (?); ’Abdulhay; Maulana Ja’far of Tabriz; Maulana Shah of Mashhad; Maulana Ma’ruf of Baghdad; Maulana Shamsuddin i Baysanghur; Mu’inuddin of Farah; Abdulhaq of Sabzwar; Mauláná Ni’matullah i Bawwab; Khajah Manin i Marwaríd, the inventor of variegated papers and sands for strewing on the paper; Sultan Ibrahim, son of Mírzá Shahrukh; Mauláná Muhammad Hakim Hafiz; Mauláná Mahmud Siyáwush; Mauláná Jamáluddin Husain; Mauláná Pir Muhammad; Mauláná Fazlulhaq of Qazwin. A seventh kind of writing is called Ta’liq, which has been derived from the Riqa’ and the Tauqi’. It contains very few straight lines, and was brought to perfection by Khajah Táj i Salmání, who also wrote well the other six characters. Some say that he was the inventor. Of modern caligraphists I may mention: Mauláná ’Abdulhay, the Private Secretary of Sultán Abú Sa’íd Mírzá, who wrote Ta’liq well; Maulana Darwish; Amir Mansúr; Mauláná Ibrahim of Astarábád; Khajah Ikhtiyar; Munshi Jamáluddin; Muhammad of Qazwin; Mauláná Idris; Khajah Muhammad Husain Munshí; and Ashraf Khán, the Private Secretary of His Majesty, who improved the Ta’liq very much.
73.9
The eighth character which I have to mention is the Nasta’liq: it consists entirely of round lines. They say that Mir ’Alí of Tabriz, a contemporary of Timur, derived it from the Naskh and the Ta’liq; but this can scarcely be correct, because there exist books in the Nasta’liq character, written before Timur’s time. Of Mir ’Alí’s pupils I may mention two: Mauláná Ja’far of Tabriz, and Maulana Azhar; and of other caligraphists in Ta’liq, Mauláná Muhammad of Aubah (near Herat), an excellent writer; Mauláná Baqí of Herat; and Mauláná Sultán ’Ali of Mashhad, who surpasses them all. He imitated the writing of Maulana Azhar, though he did not learn from him personally. Six of his pupils are well known: Sultán Muhammad i Khandán; Sultán Muhammad Núr; Maulana ’Aláuddin of Herat; Maulana Zainuddin (of Níshápúr); Mauláná ’Abdi of Nishápúr; Muhammad Qásim Shádí Sháh, each of whom possessed some distinguishing qualities.
73.10
Besides these, there are a great number of other good caligraphists, who are famous for their skill in Nasta’liq; as Maulana Sultán ’Ali, of Qáyin; Mauláná Sultán ’Alí of Mashhad; Mauláná Hijrání; and after them the illustrious Mauláná Mír ’Alí, the pupil, as it appears, of Mauláná Zainuddin. He brought his art to perfection by imitating the writing of Sultán ’Ali of Mashhad. The new method which he established, is a proof of his genius; he has left many master-pieces. Some one asked him once what the difference was between his writing and that of the Mauláná. He said, “I have brought his writing to perfection; but yet, his method has a peculiar charm.” In conclusion I may mention:—Sháh Mahmúd of Níshápúr; Mahmúd Is-haq; Shamsuddin of Kirmán; Mauláná Jamshíd, the riddle-writer; Sultán Husain of Khujand; Maulana ’Aishi; Ghiásuddin, the gilder; Mauláná ’Abdussamad; Mauláná Malik; Mauláná ’Abdulkarim; Mauláná Abdurrahím of Khwárizm; Mauláná Shaikh Muhammad; Mauláná Sháh Mahmúd i Zarrinqalam (or gold pen); Mauláná Muhammad Husain of Tabriz; Mauláná Hasan ’Alí of Mashhad; Mír Mu’izz of Káshán; Mírzá-Ibráhím of Isfahán; and several others who have devoted their lives to the improvement of the art.
73.11
His Majesty shews much regard to the art, and takes a great interest in the different systems of writing; hence the large number of skilful caligraphists. Nasta’líq has especially received a new impetus. The artist who, in the shadow of the throne of His Majesty, has become a master of caligraphy, is Muhammad Husain of Kashmir. He has been honoured with the title of Zarrinqalam, the gold pen. He surpassed his master Mauláná ’Abdul-’Aziz; his maddát and dawáir shew everywhere a proper proportion to each other, and art critics consider him equal to Mullá Mír ’Alí. Of other renowned caligraphists of the present age, I must mention Mauláná Báqir, the son of the illustrious Mullá Mír ’Alí; Muhammad Amín of Mashhad; Mír Husain i Kulankí; Mauláná ’Abdulhay; Mauláná Daurí; Mauláná ’Abdurrahím; Mír ’Abdullah; Nizámí of Qazwín; ’Alí Chaman of Kashmír; Núrullah Qásim Arsalán. His Majesty’s library is divided into several parts: some of the books are kept within, and some without the Harem. Each part of the Library is subdivided, according to the value of the books and the estimation in which the sciences are held of which the books treat. Prose books, poetical works, Hindí, Persian, Greek, Kashmírian, Arabic, are all separately placed. In this order they are also inspected. Experienced people bring them daily and read them before His Majesty, who hears every book from the beginning to the end.
73.12
At whatever page the readers daily stop, His Majesty makes with his own pen a sign, according to the number of the pages; and rewards the readers with presents of cash, either in gold or silver, according to the number of leaves read out by them. Among books of renown, there are few that are not read in His Majesty’s assembly hall; and there are no historical facts of the past ages, or curiosities of science, or interesting points of philosophy, with which His Majesty, a leader of impartial sages, is unacquainted. He does not get tired of hearing a book over again, but listens to the reading of it with more interest. The Akhláq i Násirí, the Kímiyá i Sa’ádat, the Qábúsnámah, the works of Sharaf of Munair (vide p. 48), the Gulistán, the Hadíqah of Hakím Sanáí, the Masnawí of Ma’nawí, the Jám i Jam, the Bústán, the Sháhnámah, the collected Masnawis of Shaikh Nizami, the works of Khusrau and Maulana Jami, the Diwans of Khaqani, Anwari, and several works on History, are continually read out to His Majesty. Philologists are constantly engaged in translating Hindi, Greek, Arabic, and Persian books, into other languages. Thus a part of the Zich i Jadid i Mirzai (vide IIIrd book, Ain 1) was translated under the superintendence of Amir Fathullah of Shiraz (vide p. 33), and also the Kishnjoshi, the Gangadhar, the Mohesh Mahanand, from Hindi (Sanscrit) into Persian, according to the interpretation of the author of this book.
73.13
The Mahabharat which belongs to the ancient books of Hindustan has likewise been translated, from Hindi into Persian, under the superintendence of Naqib Khan, Maulana Abdul Qadir of Badaon, and Shaikh Sultan of T’hanesar. The book contains nearly one hundred thousand verses: His Majesty calls this ancient history Razmnamah, the book of Wars. The same learned men translated also into Persian the Rámáyan, likewise a book of ancient Hindústán, which contains the life of Rám Chandra, but is full of interesting points of Philosophy. Hájí Ibráhím of Sarhind translated into Persian the At’harban which, according to the Hindús, is one of the four divine books.
73.14
The Líláwatí, which is one of the most excellent works written by Indian Mathematicians on Arithmetic, lost its Hindí veil, and received a Persian garb from the hand of my elder brother, Shaikh ’Abdul Faiz i Faizí. — At the command of His Majesty, Mukammal Khán of Gujrát translated into Persian the Tájik, a well known work on Astronomy. The Memoirs of Bábar, the Conqueror of the world, which may be called a Code of practical wisdom, have been translated from Turkish into Persian by Mírzá ‘Abdurrahim Khān, the present Khān Khānān (Commander-in-Chief). The History of Kashmir, which extends over the last four thousand years, has been translated from Kashmirian into Persian by Maulānā Shāh Muhammad of Shāhābād. The Mu’jam ul Buldān, an excellent work on towns and countries, has been translated from Arabic into Persian by several Arabic scholars, as Mullā Ahmad of T’hat’hah, Qāsim Bēg, Shaikh Munawwar, and others. The Haribans, a book containing the life of Krishna, was translated into Persian by Maulānā Sherī (Vide the poetical extracts of the second book).
73.15
By order of His Majesty, the author of this volume composed a new version of the Kalīlah Damnah, and published it under the title of ‘Ayār Dānish. The original is a master-piece of practical wisdom, but is full of rhetorical difficulties; and though Naçrullāh i Mustaufī and Maulānā Husain i Wā’iz had translated it into Persian, their style abounds in rare metaphors and difficult words. The Hindī story of the Love of Nal and Daman, which melts the heart of feeling readers, has been metrically translated by my brother Shaikh Faizī i Fayyāzī, in the masnawī metre of the Lailī Majnūn, and is now everywhere known under the title of Nal Daman. As His Majesty has become acquainted with the treasure of history, he ordered several well informed writers to compose a work containing the events which have taken place in the seven zones for the last one thousand years. Naqīb Khān, and several others, commenced this history. A very large portion was subsequently added by Mullā Ahmad of T’hat’hah, and the whole concluded by Ja’far Bēg i Açaf Khān. The introduction is composed by me. The work has the title of Tārīkh i Alfī, the History of a thousand years.