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Storia do Mogor 238: Names of the [Hindu] Tribes.

Storia do Mogor (Irvine) 238

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Names of the [Hindu] Tribes.

238.1.1

Chevan (Chauhan), Pavar (Panwar), Badorie (Bhadauriyah), Bandare (? Bandhalgoti), Rambanci (Ram-bansi), Bach Gor (Bachhgaur), Botia (Bhurtiyah), Chandrahot (Chandrawat), Chasfadele (? Chandel), Benofal (Banaphar), Solancy (Solankhi), Saran Brancy (Surajbansi), Sumbanci (Sombansi), Jodo Bansy (Jadubansi), Metuvar. All these names are Hindu. The other rajahs' states, which remain unmentioned, are somewhat less powerful than these, and the other fifty are even less so than these last. Three of these rajahs became Mahomedans owing to the great promises made to them by Aurangzeb. But after they had been circumcised he seized their territories, and has given them the title of ' noble ' in his kingdom ; but with it he leaves [62] them very little to live upon. All that he has given them is some offices in his household. To one he gave the superintendence of the store-house (Almazem) — that is, the man who supervises the making of carpets for use in the royal household. Another he has placed over the goldsmiths and enamellers, who work at jewellery for the royal palace. The last received the appointment of charge over the perfumes and essences. This last man was a great friend of mine, and in secret was a drinker of wine. I have often heard his complaints, repenting of what he had done, saying he had turned himself into one of the king's slaves.

238.1.2

These three are not given any power by the king for fear that they might recant and return to Hinduism, and raise a revolt against the crown. This is what happened to Fida,e Khan when he was governor of Allahabad. He deceived a rajah by promises of making him a greater man than before. But when he was in his power, he kept him a prisoner and carried him away to the city of Lahor, and there forced him to become a Mahomedan, ordering him to receive weekly one hundred strokes with a whip. The rajah, unable to stand this torture, fell ill, and I treated him for the illness and cured him without any charge. Afterwards I lent him one hundred and ten rupees, which he employed in his journey. For immediately afterwards he took to flight and sought shelter in his own country, and returned to Hinduism. Then he began incursions upon the king's territory, and plundered as much as he could. He was, however, ungrateful so far as I was concerned, for he never recalled to mind the good turn I had done him. Usually these rajahs have such names as the following : Quesor Sing Kesar Singh Yellow Lion Bau Sing Bhao Singh Wishing to be a Lion Gueret Sing Kirat Singh Lion's Beauty Guesen Sing Kishan Singh Black Lion Bessen Sing Bishan Singh Lion's Whelp Bim Sing Bhim Singh Lion's Strength Caliam Sing Kaliyan Singh Lively Lion Dal Sing Dal Singh Lion's Army Sajan Sing Sujan Singh Experienced Lion Bam Sing Ram Singh God's Lion Dalian Sing Daliyan Singh Adverse to Lions

238.1.3

The others call themselves the lions of different idols. On the whole, it may be said of these rajahs that they are modest men and religious, keepers of their word ; in that being very different from the Mahomedans [63], who treat as a joke the deception of other men in every possible way. The greater number of these rajahs dwell in the plains, where their lands bring them in many sorts of supplies. The land is cultivated by their vassals or subjects, who are called Rajputs — that is, ' rajah's son.' They have no other occupation, knowing nothing but how to till the soil or take a part in warfare. For this reason the rajahs pay them only in land, which is given for them to cultivate as a means of subsistence, on condition that they keep horses and be ready to go out to fight when they are called upon. When they have assembled, the rajah joins them ; then, at the end of a twelvemonth, fresh men arrive from their home country, and the first levy returns home. They all conduct themselves in one manner. They all eat opium, and on the day of battle they swallow a double dose. They also give some to their horses to enable them to endure fatigue. They dress in yellow, dyeing their clothes that colour with saffron. Many of them wear gold armlets, so that, if killed, those finding the body may see to its cremation. The greater number are spearmen.

238.1.4

When they draw near to the enemy, their musicians begin to sing songs in a loud voice, with a violin accompaniment, in praise of their courage. These musicians are also on horseback and well armed, all drunk with opium, their eyes flaming and red. In place of saying that they will slay, they say Me mariche — that is, ' We mean to die.' Then, grasping their lances firmly, they throw themselves on the enemy like madmen. If by mischance the spear is broken, they draw the cattane (? kaftan, or dagger), and blindly cut and stab at all they meet and never retreat, so that they either conquer or lose their lives. I have sometimes seen some of them so impatient that, on hearing the violins strike up, though the enemy was still far off, they rode out of their squadron, and, putting their horses to their full speed, galloped like madmen into the middle of the foemen, and there sacrificed their lives. When they till the ground they always hold their spear ; and in the midst of the fields they are never without sword, shield, and dagger at their side. Thus equipped, they lay hold of their plough and urge on their oxen.

238.1.5

There are other rajahs who live in mountains to the north, about one hundred leagues or so distant from the cities of Lahor and Dihll. These mountains are on the boundaries of China, and in this expanse of country there are many rajahs, and the lands of some of them adjoin the Mogul realm and even pay him tribute. The chief of them is the Rajah of Serinaguey (Srinagar in Garhwal), although he pays no tribute, because his country is so strong and inaccessible. This is the man who cut off the noses of Shahjahan's army (I. 147), and gave shelter to the prince Sultan Sulaiman Shukoh, as told in my First Part (I. 277).

238.1.6

Near Kashmir there are several other rajahs, of whom some also pay tribute ; but frequently they refuse to obey, for which reason war is made against them. One of them is Rajah Rup — that is, ' good-looking.' He is at the head of twelve thousand cavalry and eighty thousand infantry. All the same, I call him a traitor and a thief for having broken his promise to Prince Dara, and carrying off a large sum of money given him to collect soldiers against Aurangzeb, as may be seen in my First Part (I. 210). In one of the mountains, the nearest to Dihll, one of these rajahs pays one hundred and fifty rupees of tribute, besides some boat-loads of ice that he sends down by the Jamnah river during the hot season. This rajah asked Aurangzeb to exempt him from this money tribute, when he would undertake to send him every year enough ice for the whole city of Dihli, if he were empowered to sell it. But the king refused his consent for three reasons. The first was that much coin would be exported from his court, for everybody would buy. The second was that the rajah would become wealthy. The third was that he did not want anyone to use ice, except those to whom he should deign to accord such a favour.

238.1.7

When travelling from Dihli towards Lahor these high mountains are visible, all covered with snow throughout the year. Ice also is brought down from the hills nearest Lahor; it is brought to the governor by way of tribute, and comes down the river Ravi. The mountains begin in Pegu and are found as far as Kashmir, and thence to the river Indus, to Kabul, Balkh, and Tartary. The inhabitants of these mountains are of an almost white complexion, eyes and nose small, and their speech different from that of the Mogul country and much similar to Chinese.

238.1.8

In these mountain ranges, twenty-four days' journey from the city of Patnah, is an absolute king called Botand (? Bhutan). He has in his territories much gold, perfect musk, rubies, and precious stones. For this merchandise some traders travel there, but they are few, for there are great hindrances from the many petty rajahs. They suspect the traders to be Mogul spies. When they reach their destination they pay the rajah a visit, making him a present of some small rarity, such as a bottle of rose-water, or a piece of fine cloth, or a morsel of sandal-wood, or other similar article, with which he is contented. The travellers are then given great liberty, without any fear of robbers. The soil produces good food-supplies and delicious fruits, all cheap. Strangers are allowed to keep women in their houses, who act as slaves, and they may employ them as they please, without anyone interfering. When any foreigner dies the rajah seizes everything, and passes whatever order comes into his head. Some of the bodies he causes to be buried, others to be burnt, others to be cut into pieces. These last are thrown out into the open country as food for the birds of prey, or they are sent to the fields as sustenance for the serpents (boes), foxes, and wild beasts. Others will be thrown into the rivers, cut into pieces, as food for the fish.

238.2.1

Such is the custom of that country, where the priests are much venerated. If these men desire to favour anyone with the gift of a holy relic, they give him some of their own excrement. The recipients carry it with them hanging from the neck, placed in a little box of gold and silver in which it is preserved. It is their fond imagination that if they die with such filth hanging from their neck they will acquire salvation. It is through this country that lies the route to China, but it is a very long way, and the roads most hazardous from the great mountains and many rivers. I state this on information given me by some Armenians and others who had been there, including two Jesuits, who came from China by this road. One was a Fleming and the other a German, with whom I had many a talk about this country.

238.2.2

These rajahs [i.e., the Rajputs] are powerful and brave; they preserve all ancient customs, are friendly to those who were their father's friends, inimical to those who were their enemies, and although they are necessitous, none the less they do not refrain from observing the rules of their ancestors. The Mogul draws his profit from their barbarous ways, and out of policy reinforces them when it suits him, and employs them to destroy each other. If they were only united among themselves, the Rana and the Rathors, Kachhwahahs and Bundelahs, they could easily expel the Mogul from Hindustan. As an example of what I have just said, there is the case of Rajah Jai Singh, whom a Rajput soldier tried to kill by a spear-thrust, but missed him, all but a graze on the side. This Rajput was a soldier sent by the Rajah of the Botia (Bhurtiyah) race, whose ancestors were at enmity with those of Jai Singh, and the feud had lasted for five hundred years. On the seizure of the soldier, he confessed what I have just recorded. Thus let the reader reflect on the way these Hindus keep up their ancient customs, but still more their religion.

238.2.3

Having set forth all this grandeur and power of the Moguls, I will, with the reader's permission, assert from what I have seen and tested, that to sweep it entirely away and occupy the whole empire nothing is required beyond a corps of thirty thousand trusty European soldiers, led by competent commanders, who would thereby easily acquire the glory of great conquerers. To add to the reader's information, I will also state the length and breadth of this empire. The roads are not direct, owing to the forests and mountains and the interposition of territories belonging to the different rajahs and zamindars, who allow no travellers to pass through, out of the fear they have of the Mogul. Nor are the roads there secure, for you would be robbed if you went by them. I will indicate the open and frequented roads, beginning with the east and ending on the west.

238.2.4

From the port [67] of Madrasta (Madras) to Gulkandah the distance is two hundred and sixteen kos — that is, leagues ; from Gulkandah to Oramgabad (Aurangabad) it is one hundred and sixty-eight leagues ; from Aurangabad to Brampur (Burhanpur) it is seventy-two leagues ; from Burhanpur to Serong (Sironj) it is one hundred and forty-four leagues ; from Sironj to Agrah it is one hundred and forty-four leagues ; from Agrah to Dihli it is seventy-six leagues ; from Dihli to the town of Sorend (Sihrind) it is eighty-four leagues; from Sihrind to the city of Lahor it is one hundred and four leagues ; from Lahor to Little Gujarat it is thirty-six leagues; from Little Gujarat to the Indus river it is one hundred and thirty-six leagues ; from the river Indus to the city of Paxor (Peshawar) it is thirty-six leagues; from Peshawar to Kabul it is one hundred and forty-four leagues; from Kabul to Cazenj (Ghazni), now in ruins, it is seventy-two leagues. At a distance of twenty leagues from Ghazni is the boundary of Qandahar, which belongs to the King of Persia. Here on this side end the dominions of the Mogul, and on the north side they touch the kingdom of the Usbeques (Uzbak). From this point as far as Ugullim (Hugli), which is in Bengal, there will be about the same number of leagues [? as from Madras], excluding the lands which adjoin the Axames (Asham, Assam).

238.2.5

The width, beginning from Surat, which is on the south, until you reach the town of Burhanpur, is one hundred and sixty-eight leagues; from Burhanpur to Agrah it is two hundred and eighty-eight leagues; from Agrah towards the north, up to the boundary of the hill rajahs, of whom I have spoken, there may be one hundred and twenty leagues; from the town of Tata (Tattah), which is on the south, as far as Multan, there are two hundred and seventy-eight leagues; from Multan to Lahor it is one hundred and seventy-eight leagues; from Multan to Lahor it is one hundred and forty-four leagues; from Lahor to the mountains of Kashmir it is one hundred and sixty leagues. The reader must remember that the kos or leagues of the Mogul country are different from the leagues of Europe, for ten European leagues make twelve of India, and this is the traveller's ordinary day's journey.

238.2.6

Besides the above rajahs, I have not spoken of those on the farther side of the river Ganges, which is joined by the river Jamnah below the fortress of Allahabad, as stated in my Second Part (II. 58). A considerable number of these rajahs are powerful, and of the smaller sort there are many; most of them are vassals of the Mogul. These last are under obligation to send to court the rarities produced in their country. Some send gavioens (sparrow-hawks), falcons, and other birds of prey, pretty birds, honey, and wax. With the last article they prepare a waxed cloth for the lining of tents and other uses in the royal household. They also make of it candles for the harem ; in these is mixed verdigris or vitriol, for certain reasons which I cannot mention. Other rajahs send fruits such as grow in their country, slaves (viloens), tigers, et cetera.

238.2.7

Aurangzeb, as proof of his justness and to advertise his good deeds, sends out every day to walk through the principal square a fierce lion in the company of a goat that has been brought up alongside it from birth. This is to show that his decisions are just and equal, without any bias. This is done at court solely that the world may be notified of his justice. But I say, having experienced it, that at this day neither at court nor in any other part of his empire is there any justice ; no one thinks of anything but how to plunder. Nor can the king find any remedy. Although he prides himself on his high sagacity and perfection in every point, Ja'far Khan did not fail to give him once a good lesson, just to let him understand how defective was his policy.

238.2.8

I say that the Mir Bakhshi, Roalacan (Ruh-ullah Khan), general of cavalry, who is inferior in rank to the vizil (wazir), one day, when presenting a petition to the king, advanced too near and took the position assigned to the wazir. The king made no remark. Noticing this, Ja'far Khan dissembled for that day. When next he came to court he placed one foot farther forward than was allowed by the regulations. On seeing this, the king said to him it appeared he was oblivious of the general customs and regulations [68], having put himself in advance of the customary position. Ja'far Khan made the wise reply that wazirs held the first place, and to show the difference between himself and the Mir Bakhshi he was forced to step more forward. The king recognised the error he had made, and instead of reproving the general he made excuses to his wazir, saying it should not recur, and the petition made to him was granted. Thus was Ja'far Khan still more respected at the court. All of these men spoken of above [the rajahs] maintain at the court their own agents, provided with considerable sums of money, and these men assist their employers whenever it is found necessary.

238.2.9

There are also in this empire other lords who call themselves zamindars — that is, 'lords of land.' Among them are many powerful men who could place in the field, more or less, forty thousand soldiers, matchlockmen, archers, and spearmen. Such men do not maintain cavalry : the greater number live in the midst of jungles, and these usually pay no revenue, unless it be taken by force of arms. At this day, taking the whole Mogul empire, these rajahs, great and petty, and the zamindars, exceed five thousand in number.

238.3.1

The reader should note that in the kingdoms of Bijapur and Gulkandah, of which Aurangzeb has now made himself master, there are two Karnatik provinces. In that of Bijapur there still survive some Hindu principalities. Those which lie on the shores of the sea near Cape Comoj (Comorin) and Ceilao (Ceylon) do not pay the Mogul any revenue. Besides these, there is the kingdom of Chetrepalj (ChhattrapatI) and the Rajah of Taniaur (Tanjor), who pays six millions of rupees every year. Up to the present time the Mogul has not conquered them, owing to his wars with Shiva Ji [i.e., the Mahrattahs]. If Aurangzeb lives a few years longer he will overcome all of them ; it is his practice to denude them slowly of their wealth, then of their territory, finally of their life. Yet, with this experience, they do not preserve union so as to resist the Mogul strength.

238.3.2

In the Karnatik subordinate to the kingdom of Gulkandah there are sixty fortresses, among them one called Velur. When it was in the possession of Shiva Ji, he made hence incursions into the surrounding territory, which belongs to the Mogul. This was done with the connivance of the Mogul generals, so as to prolong the period of conquest. These men wanted to become great nobles, and appropriate the wealth [of the country]. They menaced the princes and robbed the soldiers. The latter, ready to die of hunger, went over to the service of Shiva Ji, and he thereby grew more powerful. This sort of thing is very common in the Mogul regime, as I have seen many a time, even without any understanding with the enemy. Let me give an example : Mahabat Khan was carrying on a pretended war against a rajah, when one of his engineers, called Mr. Vos, a Dutchman, said to him that, if permitted, he would so arrange that in a very short time he would conquer the enemy's territory. Mahabat Khan, dissimulating, asked him if he received his pay, and whether the pillao he sent daily reached him or not. He replied, ' Yes.' ' Then,' said Mahabat Khan, ' go to your tent, and when I ask for it, you can give me advice.'

238.3.3

The inquiring reader will be pleased by my giving him an account of the fortresses the Mogul has in his empire, pointing out some of the principal ones. The first is the fortress of Dihli ; the second, that of Agrah ; the third is Gwaliyar, where are detained the imprisoned princes, it being in the centre of the kingdom ; the fourth is the fortress of Kabul, on the frontier of Persia and of Balkh ; the fifth is the fortress of Daulatabad, in the Dakhin ; the sixth, the fortress of Bijapur ; the seventh, the fortress of Bhagnagar, the principal place in the kingdom of Gulkandah, at a short league's distance from the city ; the eighth is Rottas (Ruhtas), which is in the direction of Bengal [69].

238.3.4

These fortresses are commanded by selected and loyal officers, to whom the king gives a secret countersign, by which only they are to make the place over when superseded by his orders, as I have myself seen. The king was in Kashmir when he sent Multafat Khan to supersede Osdarcan (Hoshdar Khan) in the command of the Dihli fortress. He was allowed to enter with two other men, and when they met he produced the farmdn, to let him see it was a royal order. Noticing that Hoshdar Khan hesitated, he said to him in a passion that he must quit the fortress at once. Having said this, Multafat Khan took him by the right hand and separated the thumb [from the fingers]. This was the sign that the king had given him, and thereupon he made over the keys. In the whole of Hindustan, from Kabul to the confines of Bengal, there may be one hundred fortresses; and in the whole of the Dakhin, Bijapur, and Gulkandah, including both the Karnatiks, there are three hundred and eighty fortresses. With the one hundred already stated there are thus four hundred and eighty. To these the king sends faithful governors. Generally they are men in his service, being princes whose fidelity has been already tested. They are Rajputs, Sayyids, and Moguls. But Pathans are never allowed to hold any of these fortresses, for fear they may plot some treason, as they did to King Humayun.

238.3.5

These governors may not leave the fortress during their term of office, nor allow any stranger to enter, save any known medical men when necessity requires. This happened to me once. When I arrived at Surat, the commander of the fort was ill, and sent for me. At the request of the governor of the city I went to see him. On entering the fort, they conducted me inside with my head covered, and the patient met me at the first gate. He made excuses that he had no permission from the king to allow me inside. It seems to me these orders apply to the fortresses near the sea, due to the fear they have of Europeans. In the Mogul territory I was not treated thus, for when I was called in I entered with full liberty; and to supersede such commanders the royal farmān is enough. These orders forbidding the commander of a fortress to come outside it were instituted by King Akbar, through an event that happened in his reign. On the road to Kabul, in among the mountains, is a small fortress called Colgolama (Qila'h-i-ghulaman)—that is, 'Fort of the Slaves.' In that time the commander and the greater part of the inhabitants left the fortress to amuse themselves during the vintage. They left their houses in the charge of slaves. These men, seeing themselves masters, free from menaces and chastisement, conspired together, shut the gates, and took possession of the fortress. They paid no attention to their masters' demands. The latter assembled and attacked the gates, trying to get in.

238.3.6

The slaves discharged cannon and muskets in a nonsensical way, without hurting anyone, for they did not know how to take aim with them. Nor did the friendly messages sent to them prevail; on the contrary, they became puffed up the more, marching to and fro on the walls wearing their masters' clothes, and making mock of them. The masters were at their wits' end what to do; but an old woman, remembering the disposition of such slaves, gave the masters good advice as to how to terrify them and make them open the gates. She said they must all do as she did. Before the day dawned all were to surround the fortress, and the old lady began to shout for them to open the gates, adding thousands of abusive words, and raising her hand, in which was a whip, threatened them. Everybody did the same. The slaves, seeing the implement with which they used to be chastised, opened the gates and threw themselves at their masters' feet, begging pardon, and alleging silly reasons, throwing the blame upon one another. After this event the place was given the name that I have stated above.

238.3.7

Verily it produces desperation to be dependent on the men and women slaves of India. In them is no goodness; they are full of malice, generally thieves, false, traitors, deniers, slothful, loquacious; incapable of secrecy, devoid of love and fidelity, for ever complaining of their masters. Treat them tenderly as your children, and they behave the worse; and to get any work done you must act against them harshly, and make them do their duty by force. They serve you by fear of blows, and not from duty or love. Generally speaking, the free servants are just the same. The soldiers when on the march suffer much insolence and endure many disagreeables. The masters suffer out of necessity, from which cause they exercise patience, because, should anyone try to remedy matters, the servants leave him. In the case of a soldier, he would then have to look after his own horses, camels, tents, and cooking—an impossible thing.

238.3.8

They tell the story in India that Asaf Khan, the father-in-law of Shahjahan, a Persian by race, was seen one day dissolved in tears. Those present asked the reason of so much sorrow, when he was so rich and powerful a nobleman. He replied that his tears were due to his suffering from the many insolences that Indian servants put upon his nation. I could write much upon this subject, since I have had experience of it through many years. To come to a conclusion with these demons, I recount a case that happened in my presence to a soldier, a neighbour of mine, called Fazil Beg. His servants, conspiring together, gave him great trouble, doing everything the contrary way to what he wanted solely to get him into a rage, by which they would have an opening for leaving him. Fazil Beg penetrated their designs, but concealed it owing to his need of them, not being able to obtain others on such an emergency. It being very hot weather, he left his chest exposed, when one of the men, to make him lose his temper, came up to him, abused him greatly, and spat upon him. Fazil Beg seemed quite pleased, saying that it refreshed his constitution, and made out he had overlooked the impertinence, being in such a necessity.

238.4.1

If any of these soldiers are in any degree well served, it is because they are accompanied by a wife and some negro women, with whom the servants have intrigues, and through this attraction follow him. They are otherwise reluctant to accompany a master on a campaign, because they undergo hunger on the road, and are interfered with by the enemy. Many a time food is worth three to four, or even eight to ten rupees a cera (ser), which is a current weight, and is of twenty-eight ounces. In the campaigns against Bijapur, Gulkandah, and Shiva Ji, one ser weight sold at eighteen rupees, but this did not last many days. Meanwhile the soldiers are obliged to give the servant his food, and during the actual time of the king's campaign against Shiva Ji one bullock's load of grass was worth ten rupees; and during all the wars of Aurangzeb there were high prices and plague.

238.4.2

In the empire is another Hindu race called Kaet (Kayath), who are great scribes and arithmeticians, and through these arts they rule all the courts. Though they receive no high pay, they are still much cherished by the great for their good advice. These men are fond of alcohol, and make sacrifice with it to their idols. In the early morning they bathe their bodies, and almost naked, begin their prayers before the idol, near which they place their pen-and-ink box, with a bottle of the best liquor they can procure. During the ceremony, which usually lasts about an hour, they pour into the inkstand some drops of liquor with the right hand, and taking a little in the same hand, throw it upon the idol, and offer the pen-box to it, petitioning for the god's aid through it. Such-like idols are small, and generally made of metal.

238.4.3

In Shahjahan's time a soldier went to draw his pay, and the official, who was a kayath, could not attend to him at once, as he was busy. The angry soldier threatened him, saying he should have to smash his teeth with his sword. The official said nothing, and paid him; then, jesting, said that with his pen he could do more than he with his sword. The sharp-witted scribe, to get his revenge for the menace, wrote in the book where was entered the soldier's descriptive-roll that he had lost [71] two of his front teeth. For it is the practice in the Mogul country to write the names and personal marks of those who are employed. Some months elapsed, and the soldier appeared again for his pay. The clerk opened the book, and found by the description that he was not the man entitled to that pay, for he had two front teeth more than were recorded in the register of descriptive-rolls. The soldier was put to confusion; his protests and arguments were unavailing; and seeing no other course if he would not lose his pay and his place, he was obliged to have two front teeth extracted to agree with the record, and in that way got his pay. Throughout the empire the king is obliged to maintain fosdars (faujdars)—that is, 'lords of an army'—for if he had no such officers no one would pay him either revenue or tribute.

238.4.4

For the people of India never pay without being forced, and to collect half the total quantity of supplies that they are under obligation to pay to the crown, it is necessary to tie up the principal husbandmen. These latter collect with equally severe measures from the peasants. To obtain satisfaction of the demands made, when they find soft words and reasoning are of no use, they bind the men and give them a good beating. It is the peasants' habit to go on refusing payment, asserting that they have no money. The chastisements and the instruments are very severe. They are also made to endure hunger and thirst. From time to time they pay a trifling instalment, and the punishments being renewed again and again, they begin to pay little by little, finding they are unable to endure so much torment. Many of them carry on their persons the sum that they owe, bound in various parts. When against their will they find they have to pay, they draw forth a trifle, and declare they have no more. The punishment recommences; then they feign death (as sometimes really happens), fall on the ground, turn up their eyes, and quiver with their hands and feet. But this trick secures them no compassion, for it is well known. They are bound to some tree, and once more are showered on them blows and corolados. The latter are applied with a well-twisted rope, in shape like an ox-tail, an inch in thickness and a fathom in length.

238.4.5

With this instrument they flog on the ribs with all their strength, and it encircles the whole body, making wheals an inch wide and breaking the skin. In this way, little by little, the peasants pay what they owe. This habit is much honoured among husbandmen — that is, never to pay readily; and to undergo these torments and this disgrace is among them an honour. He who gets most blows and suffers the most is the most esteemed. If, perchance, the soil does not produce a crop, by reason of the rain failing, they sell their sons and their cattle to meet what they are obliged to pay. For the king takes one moiety and leaves them the other. These faujdārs have to supervise the roads, and should any merchant or traveller be robbed in daylight, they are obliged to pay compensation. If robbed at night, it is the traveller's fault for not having halted earlier, and he loses all, without his complaint being heard. In the days of Shāhjahān there was at court an ambassador of the Grand Turk, who, on seeing this great harshness, said to the king that it seemed to him that much cruelty was thus inflicted on his subjects. The king replied: 'Do not imagine that these people are like those of Turkey. If I did not deal with them thus, they would never leave me a moment's peace.'

238.4.6

It is quite true that if the common people here have four rupees, they are quite high and mighty and decline service. It is only when they have nothing to eat that they take service. They have no skill unless it is enforced on them by harsh treatment. It is for this reason that the Moguls call this population zolom parest (zulm-parast) — that is, 'tyranny adorers.' Sometimes these faujdārs commit excessive acts of oppression, which cause rebellion and bring on battles. If the villagers are defeated, everyone is killed that is met with, and their wives, sons, daughters, and cattle are carried off. The best-looking of these girls are presented to the king under the designation of rebels. Others they keep for themselves, and the rest are sold. At this time, when Aurangzeb is reigning, they do worse still. As the aged and wealthy officers and officials die off, he has sent, and still sends, younger leaders. These, in their eagerness to become rich, plunder and act wrongfully. They bribe the waqi'ah-navis (official reporter) and the khufiyah-navis (secret intelligencer), so that the king may never hear.

238.4.7

In this way the people suffer, and those who are the most distant from the court suffer the most. Besides all these inflictions they have other losses, for when the soldiery passes through they plunder everything they can lay hands on — cattle, food-supplies, grass, straw; they destroy houses to get firewood, and on the villagers' heads they load their baggage, and by dint of blows force them to carry it. To me it seems that this is God's chastisement, merited by their evil deeds. Never are they ready to listen to reason; they are all very troublesome, high and low, without shame, neither having the fear of God. The Hindus who turn Mahomedans are the worst of all; these are ordinarily the most insolent, the greatest talkers, and held in no consideration. As for Europeans who come to India, they must arm themselves with great patience and prudence, for not a soul will speak the truth to them, this being the general habit of India. Although they are deceivers, selfish, contumacious, and unworthy of belief [themselves], we are abhorred by the lower classes, who hold us to be impure, being themselves worse than pigs.

238.4.8

It is now forty-eight years that I have been in India, yet never have I seen a Mahomedan become a Christian. But I can say that many a Christian has pretended to be a Mahomedan, some to get pay and allowances at the court, and others in connection with women or other unruliness. I noticed that no person of seriousness fell into such an error, as is shown by what happened to a Portuguese married in the city of Dihli.

238.5.1

His name was Antonio de Souza Sarafana, and he had a quarrel with the rest of his countrymen. They styled him a cuckold, and aggrieved at such talk, he went to his house, and, getting his sword, barbarously slew his wife and a baby girl that was still at the breast. The negro women of the house, seeing this slaughter, jumped over the walls and fled. Some of these women, feeling aggrieved, went and laid a complaint, of which the courts took cognisance. When he was taken into custody the relations of the wife petitioned the court for his execution. The court asked the criminal if he was willing to turn Mahomedan ; if so, he would be liberated without punishment. The Portuguese would not consent, and, firm in his purpose, went to his beheadal with courage and animation. I have seen on the Choromandal coast and in Bengal a few Malabaris and Bengalis, poverty-stricken Hindus, become Christians, but it was from compulsion of hunger, or to get married to some Christian ; even then they never refrained from Hindu practices. Since I have spoken of the noted Hindu princes, I will mention also the Mahomedan tribes who are vassals and tributaries of the Mogul throughout his kingdom. The Pathans might collect eighty thousand horse and much infantry. But they are scattered in different parts of the kingdom, and differ from the Pathans who live beyond the river [Indus] and to the west of it, about whom the Mogul has to be very careful, for at one time they claimed the crown.

238.5.2

These [the Pathans] for the greater part serve as soldiers ; others are merchants ; and they resort to no other occupations. They are very avaricious and foolhardy. When they come to court they are well-clad and well-armed, caracolling on fine horses richly caparisoned, posing as persons of some consideration, and followed by several servants borrowed or hired for the day. On reaching their house they divest themselves of all this finery, and, tying a scanty cloth round their loins and wrapping a rag round their head, they take their seat on a mat, and live on quichire (kichrl) — i.e., rice and lentils — or badly-cooked cow's flesh of low quality, which is very abundant in the Mogul country and very cheap. In this manner they put by money and grow into merchants. They are very jealous about their women, are not very literate, fond of the chase and of dogs, dextrous with bows. They hate the Moguls so much that they will not intermarry with them ; they are extremely pretentious, each one thinking himself greater than the rest, and decline to concede to others any superiority.

238.5.3

In spite of these dissensions they are all of one race, descended from an ancient prince called Pasto (Pushtu). He had many sons — I notice there were six-and-thirty of them — who divided the kingdom at his death. It lay on the farther side of the Indus, towards the west. They proclaimed these as separate principalities, their descendants taking the name of their ancestor. One calls himself Issofzaj (Yusufzai) — that is, ' Son of Joseph ' ; others are Mahomedzaj (Muhammadzai), Iszai ('Isazai), Surina (? Suran-khel), Pane (PannI), Massuani(? Masankhel), Coatro (? Kator-zai), Lody (Lodi). In this manner they entitle themselves after their ancient princes, and the name of Pathan has come down from the first prince, Pasto. Their language differs from the speech of India. They follow the Mahomedan faith, yet there is a difference in their sects, for some venerate Muhammad, others 'Ali, others 'Usman, and others some other disciple of the false prophet [73].

238.5.4

There is another race called Sahjed (Sayyid), signifying a descendant of Muhammad. These men are venerated among Mahomedans ; these, too, are scattered in different parts of the empire. Their principal seat lies forty leagues distant from the city of Dihli, in the direction of Lahor. The place is near the Jamnah river, where there are twelve villages called Barre (Barhah). These hold themselves to be fine soldiers, learned men, virtuous and saintly, as has been seen in my Second Part (II. 9). They can collect twelve thousand cavalry and a large number of infantry. There are others called Seczada (Shekhzadah), who are descended from the family of Muhammad, but very remote from the Sayyids. This race hold land, and also remain in service at the courts, great and petty ; they are very subtile, of great intelligence, very litigious, and great lawyers. Others become recluses and holy men, and by that false pretence gain a living.

238.5.5

There is also another race called Baloche (Baloch), who dwell on the farther side of the river Ravi, near the city of Multan, and as far as the confines of Persia. In this territory are many camels, which they bring for sale into the Mogul country. Usually they are expert camel-drivers, and serve everyone in that capacity. They wear long locks of hair, and are of a dark, ruddy complexion. During the march they sing as they ride their camels. These men never look for service as soldiers at the king's court; only a few of their superior men act as governors and faujdars near their own country. This race can place in the field fifteen thousand horse and much infantry. Within their own country they are good soldiers, and they prevented Prince Akbar from invading the Mogul realm at the time he was helped by Shah 'Abbas. They are of the religion of the Moguls, and without a prince.

238.5.6

On the other side of the Chinab river, on its northern side, and extending as far as the Indus, there is a race called Guaquer (Ghakkar). They are good soldiers, and many of them are in the king's service. They are esteemed there, and at the court grow to be great nobles. During my time one of these was Hizetcan ('Izzat Khan), who was governor of the city of Tatthah, where it happened that he was made prisoner and disgraced by a young lady, as will have been seen in my Second Part (II. 171). It is a tale told among the Moguls that the ancient chronicles show how Alexander the Great was given a great deal of trouble by this race when he crossed the Indus river. Their complexion is of a deep green-black; they can place in the field twelve thousand horse, and they have no prince. There is another race called Gett (Jat), who are found a hundred leagues from Lahor, where there is much jungle. They were ruled over by the man from whom I removed the fat, as will have been seen in my Second Part (II. 161), when I was living in the city of Lahor. They were for ever plundering the king's territory, and for this reason there is always a faujdar ready to give assistance in any direction. These officers sometimes come to amicable terms with them, so as to live in peace and quiet; and relying on the word of trusted friends, they meet and entertain each other.

238.5.7

The beheaded man from whom I extracted the fat had a great friendship with a rajah faujdar. The latter asked him to order his spies, of whom he had some that were very clever, to show him some of their tricks; for he had heard marvellous tales about them. The order was issued. After the lapse of some days, there appeared at daybreak in front of the rajah's tent a Jogi penitent seated on a tiger-skin, with flowing hair, a huge beard, his arms raised on high, having long twisted nails, his body smeared over with ashes. He seemed a vision, such as may be seen in the pictures of Jogis or Saniyasis. These men are greatly venerated by the Hindus. Holding him to be a saint, the whole army of the rajah thronged to see him. Lying flat on the ground, with their arms raised aloft in sign of worship, they drew close to him and asked what he desired of all that they could offer him. There he sat with the greatest gravity, his eyes lowered and his lips completely shut. As the sun rose higher they brought him a dish of food, and wanted to feed him, just as you do an infant, seeing that his arms were useless. The man shut his mouth, and made gestures that he did not want to eat. They sought methods to persuade him, saying that they, too, would not be able to eat, and his 'animals' would have to suffer. These arguments were of no use.

238.5.8

Then the rajah was informed, and at once he came on foot to greet the saintly man with many signs of worship, and when quite close, crossed his hands on his breast. All this was in the full heat of the sun. The rajah prayed him to have compassion on him and his army. Should his petition not prevail, neither he nor his 'animals' could eat anything. Their idea was that they would be excommunicated if they did. The cunning cheat dissembled. Once more the rajah prayed that with his permission he might call his wives, who would cook food and give him to eat. The knave, on hearing these words, made a slight movement with the corner of his eye in sign of consent. At once the rajah sent for a tent, and caused all his women to appear. These did the faqir great reverence, and in his presence prepared the food. The principal wife of the rajah as a sign of worship placed a morsel in his mouth, and he refused to eat more. Thus all were satisfied, and when night descended the Jogi disappeared.

238.6.1

After some little time the two friends met again, and the rajah made a complaint. He said that the spies had not demonstrated their ability. Then that spy, who was standing by clad as a soldier and armed, said: 'I am the man to whom your wife gave to eat,' and told the whole of what had passed. The rajah was in astonishment, praying them another time not to play him such tricks. I might recount many similar cases; but as it seems to me, you may discover from this instance the finesse of the Indian people, and how they are able to pretend. That rebel was lord over eight thousand very active cavalry, who were great plunderers. There comes to my memory now an affair that happened in Hindustan.

238.6.2

There were in the field two rajahs ready to give battle. At that time there appeared a physician, who said to one of the rajahs that he possessed a drug by which, if taken by his soldiers, he would win the battle. The rajah was persuaded, and the whole army was purged. The opposing rajah heard of this, and sent men to win over the physician by handsome presents, imagining that the victory was in his control. On arriving he purged everybody, and the same day the rival force made an attack and routed them, seeing they were all occupied with their necessities. The fugitive rajah said the medicine was good, but as his opponent had taken it first, therefore he had conquered. These Rajputs are very easy of credence in regard to what doctors, Brahmans, or astrologers say, for they are quite illiterate. There is another race called Batti (Bhati), who can place in the field six thousand cavalry and much infantry. They live between the town of Sihrind and Lahor, and they enter the faujdar's service on small pay. Their dwellings are in the huge jungles called Laqui Janquel (Lakhi Jangal), surrounded by various rivers. These men are great thieves and plunderers of the roads and villages. When the king wants to punish any officer he sends him to this region, where he suffers a great deal and gains no profit at all.

238.6.3

There is also another tribe called Mevattj (Mewati). They are good horsemen, also enterprising thieves [75] and robbers. Nowadays they have no cavalry, because King Shahjahan called upon the Rajah Jai Singh to destroy them, and said he would make him a present of the lands he conquered. He, like a brave and prudent captain, soon overcame them. They live among hills ; the chief men he beheaded, disarmed the rest, and forced them to live in the open country. The son of their chief man was made a eunuch by Shahjahan. It was he who commanded at Bhakkar, as spoken of in my First Part (I. 219, 225, 262). He was called Khwajah Basant; and he remained faithful to Prince Dara at the fortress of Bhakkar. When I passed through this region I saw upon the hills many villages, which were not then destroyed. The greater part of this tribe lives upon robbery.

238.6.4

There are also two other small Hindu tribes called Myne (? Minah) and Torj (? Bauria), who are highly renowned as great and adventurous thieves. One of them, in the very presence of Rajah Jai Singh, took off the turban of Shiva Ji when asleep ; this was in the time of the war, and there was fear of losing your life. Once when I was living in Lahor, (it was during the governorship of Fida,e Khan) fifteen thieves of this tribe were caught. They had robbed a house at midnight ; they were seized and sentenced to death. When the officers of justice were taking them to be executed in front of that very house, they passed in front of my door. There was a great noise of drums, and a great crowd of curious idlers following. Hearing this row, I came forth, and saw that the first thief was a youth of some five-and-twenty years. He went on his way in great confidence, singing in a loud voice, and giving thanks to God for that he had made his life a sacrifice in the occupation he was brought up to, without having to change his pursuits. Seeing me while still continuing his song, he bowed his head as a mark of politeness. I remarked that the last of them was a Baminy (a Banya), whom they carried along by force, because he had been consenting to the concealment in his house of the stolen goods.

238.6.5

Throughout the kingdom there are many of these thieves, and in the army they find stealing very easy, carrying off horses and camels. For this reason many soldiers place iron chains on these animals' feet, fastened by padlocks to make them secure. Along with the armies there march privileged and recognised thieves, called Bederia (Bidari); these are the first to invade the enemy's territory, where they plunder everything they find. The handsomest items are reserved for the general; the rest they sell on their own account. Prince Shah 'Alam, when he was within the territories of Shiva Ji, near Goa, had in his army seven thousand such, whose orders were to ravage the lands of Bardes because of my non-return, as I have stated in my Second Part (II. 220). In the bazars and booths of these Bidaris is found every kind of food-supply—vegetables, fruits, and other products, all purloined from the enemy's territory.

238.6.6

In these armies the foot soldiers are commonly Rajputs, the greater number being of the Bundelah tribe or Purbiyahs from the direction of Allahabad. They are matchlockmen and archers, and also serve to look after the baggage. They are faithful to their employers, but great thieves on the march, plundering supplies of food and wood for their cooking fires. For this they are punished and bound two and two upon camels, their noses pierced by arrows, and paraded throughout the camp, so that they may be seen and terror be inspired. All the same, they continue to pilfer and are very insolent, paying respect to no one. If anyone has a dispute with one of them, they congregate in great numbers, and the adversary of their tribesman is severely beaten and left half dead. This I have seen many times. Some of them would be going along when, seeing some such wrangle, they would draw near to give help, and would kindly beat the disputant with their sticks ; or if not able to do so owing to their opponents' numbers, would throw stones at them, give them a lot of abuse, and then resume their route. It seems to me I have dwelt sufficiently on the habits and customs of this Hindustan ; but I have observed that all the great men are fond of amusing themselves with chess-playing, by which, as they say, they learn to govern, place and displace, give and take, with discretion, to the glory and gain of their projects. I will relate a story about this game.

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