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Storia do Mogor 281: HISTORY OF THE MOGUL · FOURTH PART · PREFACE

Storia do Mogor (Irvine) 281

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HISTORY OF THE MOGUL · FOURTH PART · PREFACE

281.1.1

I made some promises in my last book [Part III., p. 79] to continue my history, if it pleased God to preserve me in a little health. Yet it seemed that the advanced age at which I have already arrived, and the serious occupation provided by the prospect of another life, might have dispensed me from writing more about what goes on in the Mogul's empire, wherewith I have entertained you, dear reader, in the first three parts of this history, which I have sent to be printed. Nevertheless, in spite of any inclination I may feel for repose, I am anxious to acquit myself of my promise ; and I again take up my pen to tell you of what has happened and is still happening at the court of Aurangzeb. I shall set forth in this Fourth Part any remarkable event that I may have overlooked. I mean to write without passion, but with all possible exactitude and sincerity, just as I have done up to this point, and relate all that has taken place at this renowned court. Here you will find, dear reader, something for your instruction and at the same time for your diversion. The great and generous actions of some will serve as excellent examples to follow, and the faults of others will yield you salutary warnings.

281.1.2

It looks as if everything in India were being made ready for some remarkable revolution. The great age of the emperor, who is more than eighty-six years old, and the ambition to gain the throne continuously displayed by his sons and grandsons, give rise to the apprehension of some catastrophe quite as tragic as that supervening at the close of Shahjahan's reign. In spite of this, the ablest politicians — those who have acquired in the course of many years great experience of, and acquaintance with, the affairs of this crown — assert that all will be peaceful so long as the aged monarch is still in this world. In saying this they rely on the admirable conduct and the good government of this prince, who, in spite of his great age and the infirmities inseparable from it, knows how to get himself always obeyed with his former vigour, and to hold every man to his allegiance. In return for my sitting up at night and all my industry, I hope, my dear reader, to reap the only fruit to which I have ever looked forward, namely, your instruction united with your satisfaction. I shall be more than content if I can succeed to that extent, and for that much will readily give thanks to God, who is the sole Author of all that men can do of good in this world. Farewell. I begin this Fourth Part of the history with the eighteenth century since the coming of our Saviour.

281.1.3

Shiva Ji, the powerful rajah or Hindu king, of whom I have spoken in the previous parts, is the first to present himself for continuing the current of my story. At the beginning of the present year (? 1701) the general Zu,lfiqar Khan besieged the fortress of Parlanaguer [Parnala-garh], a strong place formerly belonging to the kingdom of Bijapur, but now held by Shiva Ji. The Mahomedan general was at the head of an army of fifty thousand foot and thirty thousand cavalry. In the month of February of the same year (1701) this rajah collected his troops and came against his enemy, advancing even to his entrenchments. The fight was bloody, and in the end victory declared itself for Shiva Ji. He defeated Zu,lfiqar Khan's army, and forced that general to retire in disorder from his position before the fortress. All the Mahomedan artillery and baggage fell into the victor's hands, who pursued with all imaginable energy, seizing all the fugitives, and, to sum up, sparing no one who bore arms. As for the others, he was cruel enough to order their right hands and their noses to be cut off; of the latter class there were so many, that they are still to be seen in all the directions to which they have dispersed. Nevertheless, he did not stop short at this one attack, for, finding himself victorious, he has never ceased to disturb the royal army, making new assaults on it from one day to another, engaging it at different points, and stopping the delivery of supplies.

281.1.4

From this cause there is nearly always great scarcity in the king's camp, and the price of provisions is very high — so much so that one measure of rice weighing no more than twenty-eight ounces has been at times sold for eighteen rupees. It was about the same time that a general of Shah 'Alam's cavalry, that prince being then in the province of Kabul, came to him and complained that one 'Aziz Khan, commanding a corps of five hundred horse, had raised a quarrel with him, and had displayed his anger in some sharp and abusive words, his soldiers having backed him up and encouraged him in his insolent attitude. Their reasons were that a great deal of money was owing to them, and that for many a day they had received nothing. [2A] The enquiring reader should recollect that in the Third Part (III. 22, 27) of this history I spoke of the great pay and allowances that the Mogul gives to the commanders of his armies, the other officers, and, generally speaking, to all his troops; and I have said there that the king gave to those who had a Hazari certain lands, from the income of which they were under an obligation to maintain one thousand horse. I ought to add that, in addition to that land, he gives as a favour one rupee a day for each horse. This makes three hundred and sixty-five thousand rupees a year for the thousand horses.

281.1.5

Nevertheless, as it is a favour, and the king knows that the Hazaris, more often than not, are unable to maintain those horsemen on the pay, he allows them to keep up no more than the quarter of the number. He does not look narrowly into this matter; although, in spite of the deficiency, the said Hazaris, the Mansabdars, and the other officers of the army never fail to draw their pay as if they had the full number of horse required. In this manner, the name or title is 'of a thousand,' and they receive pay for a thousand men, while the number they entertain is only two hundred and fifty. Besides the above money which they receive for their horsemen, they are also paid for their personal expenses fifty thousand rupees a year. It is just the same with all the other officers, high and low, in proportion. This may be seen from the figures that I have entered in my Third Part (III. 27). Still, in spite of all this [the false musters], the rank, the merit, and the profits of the Hazaris and the Mansabdars arise chiefly from keeping a large force of cavalry. By acting thus they are more thought of by the king, and more feared by other nobles. From the above springs the fact that there are Hazaris and Mansabdars drawing identical pay, but not keeping up the same number of horse. There are also several of both classes who have the name and title of two, of three, of four, of five, of six, of seven [Hazaris], whose pay is always rising in proportion to the favour they are in.

281.1.6

It is the case with the Hazaris that the Mogul does not confer on all of them the same honours; for there are some to whom he accords drums, trumpets, and other instruments of music, which are carried before them, together with hands in silver, as I have stated in my description of a royal march contained in my First Part (I. 50). But this favour is only granted to those towards whom he has a particular inclination, or to those who, as he considers, really merit it by their own, or their father's or grandfather's services. It must also be mentioned that he does not always give what he promises; for instance, after the conquest of the kingdoms of Bijapur and Gulkandah, he promised numerous privileges and the honours of an Hazari to many men of those countries; but when he had become absolute master of those places, he would only give them Hazari rank carrying four months' pay. This is much inferior to others, as may be seen by referring to my remarks on pay (III. 20). He also treated them less generously than other officers in two ways. First, they were given very few 'cavalry'; secondly, he gave them a higher rank than was fitting for Hazaris of that pay. Thus, instead of gaining, they were forced to expend their own money to keep up their horsemen.

281.1.7

Not only did he not reward them as he had promised, but he caused several of them to be poisoned, quite light-heartedly, on mere suspicion, just for fear they might betray him as they had done their former sovereign. He acted in the same way after the conquest of other kingdoms, Hindu and Mahomedan. Several persons belonging to them had blindly confided in him by reason of the promises that he made, and the rewards and honours they hoped to obtain from him. In the end they found themselves looked on as traitors. They had forgotten that the Mogul promises much and gives little. In spite of this being well enough known, he still goes on engaging, and then deceiving, a number of people by such-like false promises. Thus has he always lived, and does still live, like a hypocrite — that is to say, good and holy to look at, but in reality an ill-doer and devil.

281.2.1

Thus have I ever beheld with great astonishment that this prince, from the very beginning of his reign, has never promoted any traitor to his former country, whatever might be the services he had rendered to him. It is true that he has not acted in that way to the children, grand-children, relations, or descendants of such traitors. On the contrary, these he has ever advanced, just like any other of his subjects, according to their merits. In short, this has been all his life long one of his political maxims, to put the fathers, grandfathers, and uncles to death for being traitors to their country, in order not to suffer himself afterwards from similar perfidy; while he has promoted their descendants in the hope of gaining their friendship and affection. He knows, as says Machiavel, that he who desires to obliterate injuries past and done cannot resort to a more effective medicine than the prescribing of silver. Still, some of the first-named men, seeing that their misery and their affliction were increasing day by day, have frequently quitted him and offered their services to Shiva Ji, hoping thereby to improve their lot. In this course they have been imitated by a number of Mahomedans, who daily adopt the same expedient, and subsequently live on nothing but the pillage and brigandage of which they are guilty in the lands of their liege lord and king.

281.2.2

[Here the digression about pay, inserted on the two interpolated pages, comes to an end, and the narrative as to the revolt of Shah 'Alam's troops in Kabul is resumed.] [3] The prince rose forthwith. As his head was still troubled by the fumes of several bottles of Kabul wine that he had lately drunk, he fell at once into a fury and ordered his cavalry to lose not a moment in massacring 'Aziz Khan and his men. Measures were taken immediately to carry out this barbarous order ; but the men composing the attacking force met with more resistance than they had bargained for, and they were forced into fighting at close quarters. The contest was not a happy one for 'Aziz Khan ; he lost his life, while his five hundred men were cut to pieces. It is true that almost an equal number perished on the other side in executing the prince's order. He had given the order in anger while heated with wine, and did not fail to repent of it as soon as both those incentives had evaporated.

281.2.3

In this same month [? February, 1701] died in that province (Kabul) the well-beloved wife of Shah 'Alam, mother of the Prince Rafi'-ul-qadr. Her name was Nurnicham Begom (Nur-un-nissa Begam) ; she was in every way a most accomplished princess. Thus, her death was a great affliction to both father and son. All the courtiers offered their condolences ; but on this occasion King Aurangzeb took the principal part. He reminded the two mourners that no affliction fell upon man without Divine permission and express decree of Providence, to chastise him for his sins and bring him back to his duty. History afforded many examples of this truth, while our experience taught us the same thing every day. 'Who knows' (as he sent word to Shah 'Alam) 'whether what you are at present suffering has not befallen you in return for the ruin you have brought upon several families, reducing them to misery by killing your captain, 'Aziz Khan, and his troopers, whose throats were cut without mercy in obedience to your orders?' With regard to Shiva Ji, no sooner had Aurangzeb heard of the rout of the general Zu,lfiqar Khan, and the sad state to which he had been reduced by that rajah, than he made a start in person to succour him. He intended to besiege the fortress, the investment of which the above captain had been obliged to abandon, since the enemy never ceased their attacks on him nor their sorties. In the month of March of this same year (?

281.2.4

1701) an accident happened to this aged monarch, which displays how he still preserves great discretion, and shows exactly the same character I have before described. While engaged in the siege of this fortress of Parnala-garh, he was returning one day from relieving nature when his strength gave way, so that he fell down and dislocated his right knee. From this accident he has become lame, and can only walk with great difficulty, owing to his hurt having been badly attended to. But to conceal his infirmity as far as ever he can, before he appears on the throne to hold audience, he causes a curtain to be hung up in front, which is not withdrawn until he has taken his seat. The same practice is followed in the Ghusl-khanah, the place where the second audience is held, as I have already stated (III. 77). His passion for reigning is so great, as also his desire that his reign should be long-continued, that he betrays signs of this feeling on all occasions. He displays much firmness and strength of mind. It was with this idea that he said one day publicly that, strictly speaking, kings wanted nothing but sight and speech; God in his mercy had preserved to him both, although eighty-six years of age, 'without counting' (as he added) 'the thirty sound teeth that I still possess.' He wished to insinuate by these words that he had still the same eyes as before to observe everything, the same tongue to issue orders and commands;

281.2.5

lastly, thirty teeth to bite with, and punish those guilty of any fault or disobedience to his orders. He added: 'So much is this the case that I think of calling myself from this day "the second Taimur-i-lang."' That very same day Prince Kam Bakhsh came to announce to the monarch that a son had been born to him, supplicating him in humble terms to confer on it a name and title, as is the custom. The king replied that he was at liberty to name the child himself; and his (Aurangzeb's) command was that when the son of this infant should be born into the world, he undertook to give it a name. By this he wished them to understand that he looked forward to still living many years—nay, that in a measure he was sure of it. Nor is he the only one holding the opinion that this will come to pass, for they have the simpleness to believe him to be a saint. At this the worthy Nestor is far from displeased; on the contrary, he can hardly contain himself for joy when he hears it said that he is so styled, and that they believe him to be such. Thus he does all that in him lies to persuade men that he is such in reality; and he still displays a patience, proof against the roughest political disturbances, such as he has always exercised.

281.2.6

A few years ago Shah 'Alam, when seated with the king, happened, probably unintentionally, to place his hand on his beard and contemplate it. The king, having noticed this gesture, and being aware of his secret wishes, said to his son that he need not be in such a hurry to look at his beard: his day for reigning was still in the distant future. At these words poor Shah 'Alam sank his head in shame and withdrew. It can be easily understood that such speeches were hardly pleasing to the princes his sons. For each longs to be king, there being in this world nothing sweeter than to be set in authority over others; and it is already sufficient vexation to them to find he has lived so long, without his beginning to boast that he has still a long life before him. I should never have done were I to recount all the frauds and hypocrisies of this king. But, after all, since I have undertaken to give some stories, as much to entertain my reader as to inform him of the frailties and virtues of mankind, the life of this monarch of Hindustan furnishes me with ample store. Everywhere are seen in it lively pictures of the excesses to which men can be driven by a passion for rule. This is why I shall choose the principal events in it, those that I consider the most appropriate to my design.

281.2.7

We have already seen to what lengths this prince carries the passion for rule. However, feeling himself greatly weakened by age, and consequently unable longer to see to everything himself, he issued an order that Prince Kam Baklish should sign on his behalf all papers and dispatches issued by the State. This order was given at a time when several [Hindu] princes seemed to be meditating rebellion, were disobedient to orders, and refused to pay their tribute. They had gone so far in their audacity as to attack his generals and pursue them in divers places. These acts caused much chagrin and disgust to the aged monarch, yet he did not fail to put in force his old precepts, and prescribed to his commanders and generals the methods to be followed for overcoming these enemies and rebels, and misleading the Hindu princes.

281.3.1

When the general Zu,lfiqar Khan appeared to take leave of him preparatory to joining his army, he confided to him several instructions in respect of the above. Among other things he said to him in so many words : 'When you have an enemy to destroy, spare nothing rather than fail, neither deceptions, subterfuges, nor false oaths, for anything is permissible in open war. Invent as many tricks, if possible, as there are grains of purslane on your arm after you withdraw it from a barrel of honey. In one word, make use of every pretext in the world that you judge capable of bringing you success in your projects.' At the beginning of June in this year, 1701, the fortress of Parnala-garh, finding all its food and other supplies exhausted, was forced to surrender to Aurangzeb. Learning by reports repeated daily that the rebel Hindu princes had never ceased to ravage and plunder Hindustan still more and more, the monarch issued orders to his son, A'zam Shah, to apply some remedy. Shah 'Alam, as soon as he heard of this order, lost no time in coming out of the province of Kabul, and made for Multan city. Afraid that A'zam Shah might make common cause with the rebel princes and become master of the castles and cities of Dihli and Agrah, he (Shah 'Alam) directed his son, 'Azim-ud-din, to leave Bengal without delay, and march as quickly as he could to the latter of these cities. He hoped thus to hinder A'zam Shah from carrying out his [supposed] designs.

281.3.2

Here again is a specimen of Aurangzeb's passion for appearing to the minds of his people — above all, to those of his own religion — as a saintly and charitable man. There was a childless woman who had employed all methods, both legitimate and superstitious, to become fruitful, but without success. In the end she took it into her head that she would vow a payment of five rupees to the saintly king. The vow had due effect, and several years afterwards the woman gave birth to a fine, healthy male child. After her recovery she proceeded to the court to carry out her promise, but she encountered difficulties in approaching the king's person. The fact came to the king's knowledge, and he ordered her to be admitted, desiring to receive in person from her hands the sacrificial offering, which was at once distributed to the poor. This act conquered for him among all those composing his court the reputation of saintliness and great charity. To confirm them in such an opinion, he has never allowed, nor does he ever allow, an occasion to escape which can be used to further this design.

281.3.3

Here is one more example which I have selected from a number of others. His wife Depoury (Udepuri Mahal) invited him one day to her apartments, where she wished to treat him to a ragout she had herself prepared. To gratify her the king consented. But as a servant-girl was bringing in the stew, she let the dish drop and broke it. The queen was very dejected at this accident, the more so that she saw herself deprived of the pleasure of offering to her husband a dish that she had prepared with so much trouble. Thus her impulse was to punish the servant-girl at once, but the king interfered, and resorted to every device to appease her wrath, in no way sparing soft and conciliatory words, as is his habit. He reminded her that it was God's good Providence that had thus ordained ; it was (he added) a manifestation that a sinner, such as he, was not worthy to eat of so delicate a plat. He added other words, which in the end cooled the wrath of the queen.

281.3.4

Moved by this craze of being held a saint, the king got up one night to pray. Before beginning he ordered a eunuch to bring him water to wash his hands and feet, for it is a great sin among the Mahomedans to say your prayers without this ceremony. The eunuch, heavy with sleep, rose in a hurry, and by mischance stumbled against the king and knocked him down. Overcome with fear and dread, the eunuch collapsed at once in the other direction, with all the appearance of a dead man. The king noticed this, and said to him in the mildest of tones : ' Wherefore fearest thou a created being, one like thyself ? thou shouldest reserve such fear for God, and thereby hinder thyself from offending Him. Rise and be not afraid.' As soon as this adventure became known among the people, they were confirmed in their previous good opinion of his holiness. Another time, as the king was on his way to the mosque, one of the officials noticed that the carpet on which he would have to tread had a hole in it, and he therefore attempted to spread a cloth over it. On noticing this action, the king reproved the man most severely, and said that all this cleaning and fussing was well enough for the court, but had no place in God's house, where he was no higher than the least of his subjects. These words were highly prized by the people, and regarded as proceeding from a saint. This is ever the chief end aimed at by this monarch in all his actions and in all his talk. I add another example.

281.3.5

Some years ago there arrived in the Mogul country two Arabs from Mecca, who were differently dressed from Indians. After these men had suffered many privations from inability to get employment in the king's service, they thought of a stratagem which had excellent results. They set to work to study the character of Aurangzeb, and, having done so, they resorted to the mosque one day when the king would appear there. When the king arrived, they began, as agreed on between them, to stand up and make signs to each other, expressing extreme astonishment, throwing their glances at the king's person, and making it seem that their wonder was growing greater and greater at each step of his approach to them. The king saw all these grimaces, and asked them what was the cause of their astonishment. 'Your majesty,' they replied, 'it is not without good cause! For only a few months ago we had the felicity of seeing your majesty, clad as a faqir, enter into and issue from the dome at Mecca, where our most Holy Prophet is entombed; and here, to-day, we find you again surrounded by all this state and dignity.' The king, in reply to this speech, said with an air of gravity that entry into the house in question was free only to God's faithful servitors, and that the great could not draw near to it in any other garb.

281.3.6

When prayers were over, he took those two Arabs into his service, and gave them enough for an honourable subsistence. This affair made many people in the Mogul country believe that this king is of a truth a very great saint, that he becomes invisible whenever he pleases, and proceeds to Mecca to hold conversations with Muhammad. From this cause the people revere him, and hold him in the greatest respect. Yet in spite of his being himself imbued with this idea, he assumes always great humility in his attitude. Of this fact here is one example. For instance, if he sends orders to an officer at a distance in regard to any complaint that has been made of his conduct, and then learns that the said order has passed unheeded, and submission to it has been refused, he betrays no wrath at such insubordination. All he says is (and that in the softest voice) that he is only a miserable sinner, that there is no reason for astonishment if his orders are disregarded, since every day those of God Himself are neglected and repudiated. He does not forget, however, to repeat his orders, and adopt very exact means of getting them executed. This monarch is also desirous of appearing a great lover of justice. This is why he said one day that it was the bounden duty of kings to apply themselves unweariedly and painstakingly to the dispensing of equal justice to everybody.

281.3.7

For, as he said, this duty and that we owe to God for having devoted us to His sole service are the two principal grounds of action on which should rest the conduct of princes. They owe inviolable fidelity to that Supreme Being, and must work without ceasing for the furtherance of His glory and the propagation of religion. 'The great Taimur-i-lang, my ancestor, that illustrious conqueror and founder of empire, was a rare and magnificent exemplar of these fine qualities. For, as it may well be said, nothing except love of justice and of virtue forced that great prince into the war he undertook against Bayazld, Emperor of the Turks. Everybody knows that it was the cries of the oppressed and innocent that put arms into his hands. He did not drop them until he had enjoyed the pleasing satisfaction of inflicting on this cruel tyrant a punishment proportioned to the heinousness of his crimes. I may well assert without flattering myself overmuch,' he added, 'that they are the same motives which have hitherto impelled me. Yes, the fear of seeing the Mahomedan religion oppressed in Hindustan if my brother Dara had ascended the throne; that of beholding the ruin of the kingdom, which I looked on as inevitable if my father's reign had continued, by reason of his bad government: these are the only causes why I have always opposed myself strongly and without self-seeking to the attempts of everyone to supplant me.

281.3.8

In addition, from how many miseries have I not delivered my subjects by the course I have pursued? They are now enabled to enjoy in repose and with delight all the good and pleasant fruits that it has produced. It is by it that my kingdom is now full of noble mosques in place of the hideous temples crowded with idols, which, had I not been here, would undoubtedly have been erected. Instead of taverns and houses of ill-fame, which would have spread their poison all around, we find congregations of devout men, modest and full of wisdom, who proclaim without ceasing the greatness and the virtues of God.' But, in spite of all that this monarch may assert, it is not to be controverted that every day there are committed in Hindustan the most monstrous crimes in the world.

281.4.1

This prince does his utmost to maintain in the eyes of the world the prevailing opinion that he is zealous in the cause of justice. Each day he holds two audiences, where without distinction anyone can gain admission. He listens patiently to complaints, and causes the judgment he pronounces to be executed upon the spot. In spite of all these exertions, his kingdom is overrun with men whose only profession is to act as false witnesses or to forge signatures. These wretches assume a most modest attitude and attire, so that they impose upon people. They wear the clothes of penitents, have long beards, hold a chaplet constantly in their hand, and as they tell their beads are for ever mumbling a prayer. Such men are greatly in fashion, because they seem to be conforming to the king's intentions. Yet the whole country is full of the disorder that these hypocrites have sown in families by their vile falsehoods. For in this vile science they possess all imaginable skill and acuteness. I will lay one example before you.

281.4.2

A Mahomedan I knew had, to oblige a friend, become his surety for some amount of money or other. A little time afterwards the friend died before he had liquidated the debt for which the Mahomedan had stood surety. He to whom the money was due lost no time in taking measures to constrain the guarantor into paying. The latter was informed of the trick that was to be played upon him, and to cover himself he interviewed some of the honest gentlemen of whom I spoke above. In return for a consideration of two thousand five hundred rupees, which he disbursed to them, they were to fabricate for him documents and evidence, by virtue of which he would be entitled to make a still larger counter-claim than the sum his opponent demanded. The suit came before the king, and there the documents of the Mahomedan surety were inspected and accepted as so truly executed that the poor creditor, to whom a great deal of money was owing, was not only defrauded of the money he had demanded, but was further condemned to make over to the Mahomedan the total amount of these false bonds. I might bring up an infinite number of similar cases, for such are newly cropping up every day in Hindustan. But to continue would probably end in wearying my readers. However, I will tell one adventure, which not only I, but several other Europeans witnessed ; and it will serve as confirmation of the disloyalty of these people and their evil conduct.

281.4.3

An Armenian of Madras, having had several unlucky transactions, took flight to the kingdom of Gulkandah. He owed a considerable sum to an English inhabitant of the same town ; and this man soon afterwards caused him to be followed, and efforts were made to get payment, or at the least to recover something of what was due. The creditor hoped that on such an occasion the Mahomedans would lend him a helping hand, seeing the rightfulness of his claim. The poor man was sadly deceived ! He had also entered on his pursuit in the face of advice to the contrary, given him by a large number of people better informed than he was of the way in which justice is dealt out among these peoples. For the debtor collected false witnesses who deposed that the Englishman was largely in debt to the man whose creditor he really was. These wretches swore that in their presence he had admitted the debt, that he had even promised to pay one moiety on the spot. On this evidence he was decreed against, and even thrown into prison. The poor fellow, overwhelmed at this cruel result, wrote to me for advice as to how he should proceed to get out of this awkward fix. I answered as well as I could, giving him such counsels as I thought most useful. Since that time I have had no news of him, and cannot say what has become of him. This affair was an extremely thorny one ; for the whole Mahomedan population knows no other influence than that of money. Relations, friends, written recommendations, nothing avails ;

281.4.4

and besides, they never adjudicate on any dispute, unless they obtain at least one-third of the moneys forming the subject of the suit. This is the most widespread vice of that part of the population ; but one must admit that it is so mean a one that it obscures almost all the good qualities that this people might possess. There was also in the time of Shahjahan a private person who summoned one of his neighbours for the payment of some food-supplies owing to him. He took the case to the qazi of the town of Agrah, he being the head judge. The government of the place was at that time in the hands of a eunuch, a man of sense and great judgment. The complainant referred to put in an appearance at the qazi's court, and produced his papers and the evidence on which he had instituted his claim. The judge, after examining the documents, said to him that they were not sufficient, and he must in addition produce witnesses. The man was greatly perplexed, and being unable to find any men ready to serve him — for at that time they were not as numerous as they are in these days — he applied to the governor, and laid before him a report of the whole affair. This officer, a most enlightened man, as I have already said, recognised that the applicant was in the right, and what he asked for was most just. For this reason he advised him to go next morning to the qazi's court, and get as close to him as he could, taking every precaution that no one should overhear what he said.

281.4.5

Having observed these instructions, he should then pour into the qazi's ear all imaginable sorts of abuse, quite regardless of consequences. The man failed not to put this counsel into execution on the following day. On hearing these whispered words, the indignant qazi became beside himself with rage at such audacity, and forthwith passed sentence of death upon the man. But as it was necessary for the governor to confirm the order before its execution, the judge was obliged to appear before him to obtain his consent. Having arrived there at the audience-hall, he set forth to the governor the reasons for which he had condemned this man to death. Thereupon the eunuch asked him for witnesses to his assertions. The qazi answered that he had none, but he ought to be believed on his word. The governor retorted that this very man whom he had just condemned was thoroughly in the right in the action he had brought, and yet he, the head of the law, had declined to afford him justice, because he had no witnesses. To these remarks he added several words of salutary advice as to the course he should pursue in the exercise of his office, above all, when the matter in hand was the examination and admission of testimony. On hearing this discourse the judge withdrew in confusion, and without delay delivered judgment in that man's case exactly as he himself would have wished.

281.4.6

I think it important to reproduce these stories accurately, so that those who may read my work, and then travel to this part of the world inhabited by Mahomedans, shall be forearmed by reflecting on all that I say. Let them be well on their guard against acting on their own sentiments ; if they do, they will be cruelly undeceived, and will tumble into pitfalls from which the best advice in the world will be unable to pull them out ; just as it happened to the Englishman whose story I told a little while ago. To speak in general terms, the Mahomedans are great dissemblers, and of this the ceremonial of their prayers is an incontestable proof. When they acquit themselves of this religious duty, they keep their face turned towards the west, and never omit to deposit before them a stone. During the time of prayer they affect an attitude of abstraction and modesty. Their prayers are addressed to God and their false prophet. First they stand, next they kneel, and while in this position they are a long time striking their forehead against the stone in front of them, so that the mark of it is imprinted on the skin and remains as a sign to everyone that they have just prayed. This gives them great weight among the people, for by this method they are looked on as saints, and acquire such great credit that all they choose to say is held to be absolute verity. Then they employ this good opinion that is held of them as a means of duping and deceiving everybody.

281.5.1

As for the women, in addition to their ordinary devotions, which seem sincere enough, they have a most especial devotion to the Holy Virgin Mary. This seems rather surprising in a country where the Quran is followed ; yet none of these women will go to bed without addressing some prayers to the Queen of Heaven. I am fully persuaded that if they were the mistresses, they would embrace the whole religion of our Saviour. They have an infinitude of reasons inclining them to this ; but the most touching of all is the precept of our religion forbidding us to have more than one wife. They are much affected by this circumstance, and betray much pleasure and satisfaction when spoken to on the subject.

281.5.2

Here is one story more, one which did more than a little to strengthen people in their belief in the would-be saintliness of Aurangzeb. A woman, the widow of one of the king's generals, finding herself in poverty, presented to him a petition asking for assistance. When the king had read the petition, he ordered three hundred rupees to be given to the lady. She refused the money. When this came to the king's ears, he had her called before him, and asked her why she had not accepted what he had wished to give her. ' The reason is,' she answered, ' that there is no proportion between such a small gift and the great services rendered by my husband to your majesty ; and, further, it is in every way far beneath the dignity of so mighty a monarch.' At this retort the king threw her two papers, one bearing an order for one thousand rupees and the other one for three hundred. He told her to pick up whichever she thought fit, when the sum recorded on it would be disbursed to her. Chance ruled that she took up the paper bearing the sum of three hundred rupees. At this the king said to her : ' You see that fortune gives you no more than I had done. Console yourself, then, under God's will, as you have not desired to confide in me.' Some little time afterwards a trader of Kashmir, a very ingenious man and most skilful workman, made a coat of very rich gold thread, to which he had devoted much time. On this coat he raised in very fine embroidery some words from the Quran.

281.5.3

After it was finished and perfected, he laid it before the king, imagining that he would be delighted to buy a coat so richly worked. At first the king was very pleased with it, but on hearing the high price asked for it, he said he had made a vow never to wear costly clothes, nor was he worthy to wear on his body such holy words, miserable sinner as he was. The trader carried away his coat and offered it to Shah 'Alam ; but this prince, feeling bound to imitate the king his father, gave him a similar answer. In the end the merchant, seeing all his grand expectations had miscarried, laid the coat before the wazir, Ja'far Khan. He bought it, although [12] at a much lower price than the owner had asked. The man, not having found anyone else to buy it, left it with Ja'far Khan at the price he offered. During the festival of the Sacrifice Ja'far Khan put on this coat and repaired to court. On seeing him, the king said : ' You seem to be better off than I am.' ' Nay, sire,' was Ja'far Khan's prudent answer, ' I have expended all I possessed in the purchase of this coat ; to the end that by clothing myself in such holy words, they may wash me clean of my sins and furnish me with all the intelligence and capacity required to serve your majesty efficiently. '

281.5.4

I must allude once more in passing to those wretched pretenders to holiness of whom I have talked so much ; and their history is somewhat diverting ; for usually they are to be seen chaplet in hand, as I have said, and their habit is to repeat loudly the word ' Alla y alla ' (Allah, ya Allah !)— that is, ' O God ! O God !' It is their custom to pray in public, but once they get home at night into their houses their tune changes. They take their station at their door, holding their beads in their hand, and await the arrival of some of their women devotees. As they tell their beads, they say : ' Let her be between twelve to fifteen years old.' After a time, if no one comes, they change the words and say : ' Between fifteen and twenty.' Another hour having elapsed without an arrival, they change again and say : ' Between twenty and thirty.' Finally, when they are tired out with telling their beads in this guise without catching anything, they make one last attempt by saying : ' Let who may come, even if she be an old woman.' They continue until midnight this odious and ridiculous orison. Then, abandoning all hope of having their desires gratified, they go off to bed, saying: 'Alas! To-day I must have been guilty of some heinous sin, since God has not been gracious to my prayers.'

281.5.5

In 1669 a faqir rose one Friday very early in the morning and took it into his head to break with a hammer some of the steps at the great mosque, where Aurangzeb was used to attend and perform his devotions upon that day. The man was caught at work, arrested, and brought before the king when he was on his way to the mosque. The king directed his detention until prayers were over, when he would take cognizance of his crime. The devotions completed, the faqir was brought up. Then the king, with a grave and serious air, said to him: 'I am surprised at your professing to serve God, and yet setting to work to destroy a mosque. What profit do you thereby derive, I pray you tell me?' 'What,' said the culprit, without betraying any astonishment, 'you take notice of very minute trifles, and pay no heed to the cruel and barbarous way in which you treated your father and your brothers, nor to the tyrannies and perfidies which are daily carried out under your orders!' The king felt these reproaches most keenly, and asked the qazi then in attendance what punishment the faqir deserved. The qazi answered that he ought to be decapitated, for which there were two reasons: First, for wanting to destroy the steps by which the faithful so devoutly mounted to God's house; secondly, for having been so bold as to speak to his majesty as he had done, his offence being intensified by his majesty being the image of God upon earth.

281.5.6

The faqir, on hearing this finding, derided it, and said to the qazi: 'Those are fine decisions you are in the habit of giving. Are you not aware that the steps can be rebuilt as they were before? but take away my life, and you know not how to restore it.' He uttered these words with great firmness, pressing him for a reply to this argument. But as the qazi was still deliberating on what he could say upon such a sudden challenge, the king got him out of the difficulty he was in, and said to the faqir: 'Withdraw; each man has to render his own account for himself.'

281.5.7

One day the king was anxious to learn from others what he had already known himself for a very long time. He asked the historians who are maintained at his court if they had ever noticed in histories that any of the kings, his predecessors, from Taimur-i-lang until now, had fallen a martyr in the field during a battle against infidels. To this question they answered that they were not aware of such a thing having ever happened. Lifting eyes and hands to heaven, he exclaimed : ' I trust in you, O my God, to favour me so far as to shed my blood and take my life as a sacrifice in your cause against the infidels, so that I may acquire a martyr's crown !' All these words were merely uttered that they might be repeated to Shiva Ji, giving him to understand that the king meant never to desist until his enemy was entirely destroyed. But the latter laughs at the king's hypocritical rhodomontade, the more so that he in turn has just the same designs against the king. Notwithstanding, as has been well noted, Aurangzeb will not easily find the occasion of putting his ideas into execution. In the year 1689, when Aurangzeb was at the town of Bijapur, Queen Nerongabady (Aurangabadi Mahal) died. The king caused a magnificent tomb to be erected to the princess, provided with a dome of extraordinary height, the whole executed in marble brought expressly from the province of Ajmer, a place full of this fine stone, of which, however, no use may be made without the king's permission.

281.5.8

When this superb edifice was completed, he expressed a desire to be buried in the same place. His object was to lead Shiva Ji to understand that he would never leave the Dakhin or stop from pursuing him until he had been forced back into due subjection. This crafty monarch, finding he was in no position to do any harm to the above rajah, made a pretence of large presents and heavy allowances to those simulated saints of whom I have spoken, in order that they might obtain for him favour from God. Furthermore, he brought to his army a number of Mullas and priests, and these busied themselves from morn to eve [14] in reading the Quran in a loud voice. There was a large number of them round the king's tent, also occupied in a similar manner. Over and above these things, he imitated Muhammad by distributing to all his leaders and officers a prodigious number of gold and silver rings set with emeralds, round which he had caused to be engraved words in the Arabic character. When he made these gifts, he said that when Muhammad went forth to war he wore rings like these, and thereby God accorded him the victory.

281.6.1

Nothing can be more surprising than the way things go on in the Mogul Empire. The king, the princes, the governors, and the generals have each their own line of policy, calculated for securing success to their own designs. Under this head I have been witness to the most extraordinary things. Down to the very smallest officer there is not one who is not a past master in the art of enriching himself prodigiously. They flinch from nothing in their pursuit of wealth; they ignore even the loyalty due to their sovereign. They maintain a correspondence with the enemy with a view to prolonging the war as much as possible, going so far even as supplying him with all the money he wants. Here is one instance.

281.6.2

Fazil Khan, chief officer of the royal wardrobe, had developed, and had even begun to put into execution, the idea of conveying secretly to Prince Akbar in Persia the sum of five lakhs of gold coin. His attempt was discovered by the governor of Surat, who gave immediate notice to the king. This fact becoming known to Fazil Khan, he saw that his intrigue was unmasked, and at once swallowed some poison, of which he died. He thus avoided the torture which would, no doubt, have been inflicted upon him. However, the king commanded that the cash be removed into his treasury, being extremely annoyed that the man had escaped from his vengeance. It was not owing to any necessity he was in that the money was to have been sent to Prince Akbar, for the traders living in Hindustan never leave him in want of cash. I have reported this affair as proof of what I have just advanced, namely, that no one has the slightest hesitation in violating the fidelity he owes to the king. Here is a second instance.

281.6.3

The general Zu,lfiqar Khan, of whom I spoke at the beginning of this volume (III. 2), was in charge of the campaign against Shiva Ji (the Mahrattahs). He was the son of Asad Khan, chief minister of Aurangzeb, and in his army was a crowd of Hindu princes serving under him. One of these, named Achep-nar (? Ajai' Punwar), a handsome and wealthy young man, made an offer to the general that in a short space of time he could capture the great fortress of Singy (Jinji), within which Shiva Ji (i.e., Ram Raja, Mahrattah) had taken shelter. The project did not suit Zu,lfiqar Khan's views. Success in it would have ended the war, and with it his own power. Thus he always brushed the proposal aside. The young [15] prince, disgusted at these delays, addressed himself direct to the king, and offered to make him master of the place in eight days by his own troops alone. Unfortunately the letter fell into the hands of the wazir, the general's father, who never hesitated to suppress it, foreseeing quite well what would be the consequences to his son. Without any delay he wrote to him about what was going on, and warned him directly on receipt of that letter to kill the 'wolf' for fear he might ruin everything. As soon as Zu,lfiqar Khan had learnt this news, he sent for Achepnar (? Ajai, Punwar) on the pretext of having something to tell him. Immediately the poor prince appeared he was bound, and orders were given to cut off his head.

281.6.4

In spite of all the blows delivered by the executioner, the sword never even grazed the skin. But the prince felt sure that he would never be able to preserve his honour, so he told the executioner to remove from his hair a small writing hidden there, and after so doing he would be able to decapitate him. The man did as he was bid, and after Achepnar had addressed thousands of reproaches to the general, he bowed his head, and it was separated from his body. His corpse was dragged ignominiously round the tents of Zu,lfiqar Khan. Subsequently that captain took possession of all the most valuable articles in the prince's equipage, and the rest he allowed to be pillaged. Then he caused the women to be shut up in a tent close to his own, posting round it a number of sentinels. Among these illustrious sufferers was a son of the defunct, aged about ten years. Along with him were his mother, his sister, and four other of his father's wives. They were convinced that shortly the Mahomedans would proceed to dishonour them. Finding themselves in this extremity, neither the boy nor those afflicted princesses could endure the thought of such an affront. Drawing his sword, he slew them all. Never a word did they utter, but rather felt death to be sweeter far than the condition to which they had been brought. The tragedy was only discovered through the trickling blood issuing from the tent, the only sign to inform the public how these unfortunate princesses had come to their end.

281.6.5

The reader must not be surprised. Devoting themselves to death is common enough among the women of this empire, for I have several times seen a house in a town in flames while the poor women, who might have easily saved their lives, choose rather to be burnt than merely to expose themselves to the view of strangers. Having performed this dastardly piece of treason, the general wrote to the king that he had caused the Hindu prince Achepnar to be beheaded for rebellion, and the additional crime of being in correspondence with Shiva Ji ( = Ram Raja, Mahrattah). The king approved all his acts, and [16] the general proceeded to appropriate the dead man's goods. At the present moment this man (Zu,lfiqar Khan) is the greatest captain in the Mogul service ; the king thinks very highly of him, and has conferred on him the title of the 'Valiant.' The captain, 'Ali Mardan Khan, was subjected to an almost exactly similar piece of treachery. He commanded some troops under the same general, and made a parade of his high valour and great loyalty to the king's service. But the two men could not agree. The general, who hated him, resolved to ruin him, and to secure this he warmly commended him to an officer of Shiva Ji called Santangape (Santa Ape), earnestly entreating him to give the man a thorough good beating the first chance he had. Santa Ji executed this commission without fail a few days afterwards. He inflicted a defeat on 'Ali Mardan Khan, and killed one thousand of his men.

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