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Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v1.c6.s20: N

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v1.c6.s20

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English

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NAKULA—The cage of the mungoose (M. L. 245, see under Bhūshṇa).

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NAKHA—The nail, its measurement, etc., when belonging to an image. (M. LIX. LXV. etc., 21).

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NAKSHATRA-MĀLĀ—The garland of stars, an ornament. (M. L. 297, see under Bhushaṇa).

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NAGARA(-RĪ)—(cf. Grāma)—A town, a city.

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(1) Definition :

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Janaiḥ parivṛitaṁ dravya-kraya-vikrayakādibhiḥ ।
Aneka-jāti-saṁyuktaṁ karmakāraiḥ samanvitam ॥
Sarva-devatā-saṁyuktaṁ nagaraṁ chābhidhīyate ॥
(Kāmikagāma, XX. 5-6).

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(2) Dhanu-śataṁ parīhāro grāmasya syāt samantataḥ ।

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Samyāpātās trayo vāpi tri-guṇo nagarasya tu ॥
(Manu-saṁhitā, VIII. 237).

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(3) Dhanuḥ-śataṁ parihāro grāma-kshetrāntaraṁ bhavet ।

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Dve śate kharvaṭasya syān nagarasya chatuḥ-śatam ॥
(Yājñavalka, II. 167).

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(4) Nagarādi-vāstuṁ cha vakshye rājyādi-vṛiddhaye ।

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Yojanaṁ yojanārddhaṁ vā tad-arthaṁ sthānaṁ āśrayet ॥
Abhyarchya vāstu-nagaraṁ prākārādyam tu kārayet ।
Īśādi-triṁśat-padake pūrva-dvāraṁ cha sūryake ॥
Gandharvābhyāṁ dakshiṇe syād vāruṇye paśchime tathā ।
Saumya-dvāraṁ saumya-pade kāryā hatyās tu vistarāḥ ॥
(Agni-Purāṇa, chap. 106, v. 1-3).
Then follows the location of the people of different castes and professions in various quarters (ibid. v. 6-17).

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(5) Chhinna-karṇa-vikarṇaṁ cha vyajanākṛiti-saṁsthitam ॥

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Vṛittaṁ vajraṁ cha dīrghaṁ cha nagaraṁ na praśasyate ॥

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(6) Kauṭilīya-Arthaśāstra (chap. XXII. p. 46, foot note) :

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Nagaraṁ rāja-dhānī ।
Nagrāṇi kara-varjitāni nigama-vaṇijāṁ sthānāni ।

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(7) Mānasāra (chap. X. named Nagara) : The dimension of the smallest town-unit is 100 × 200 × 4 cubits; the largest town-unit is 7,200 × 14,400 × 4 cubits (lines 3-33). A town may be laid out from east to west or north to south according to the position it occupies (102). There should be one to twelve large streets in a town (110-111). It should be built near a sea, river or mountain (73, 51), and should have facilities for trade and commerce (48, 74) with the foreigners (63). It should have defensive walls, ditches and forts (47) like a village. There should be gate-houses (gopura, 46), gates, drains, parks, commons, shops, exchanges, temples, guest-houses, colleges (48 f) etc., on a bigger scale than in a village.

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Towns are divided into eight classes, namely, Rāja-dhānī, Nagara, Pura, Nagarī, Kheṭa, Kharvaṭa, Kubjaka, and Pattana (36-38).

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The general description of towns given above is applicable more or less to all of these classes.

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For purposes of defence, the capital towns commanding strategic points are well fortified and divided into the following classes—Śibira, Vāhini-mukha, Sthānīya, Droṇaka, Saṁviddha, Kolaka, Nigama, and Skandhāvāra (38-41, 65-86). The forts for purely military purposes are called giri-durga, vana-durga, salila-durga, paṅka-durga, ratha-durga, deva-durga and miśra-durga (86-87, 88-90, 90-107, see under Durga).

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(8) "On the banks of the Sarayū is a large country called Kośala, gay and happy, and abounding with cattle, corn and wealth. In that country was a famous city called Ayodhyā, built formerly by Manu, the lord of men. A great city twelve yojanas (108 miles) in length and nine yojanas (81 miles) in breadth, the houses of which stood in triple and long extended rows. It was rich and perpetually adorned with new improvements, the streets and lanes were admirably disposed, and the principal streets well watered. It was filled with merchants of various descriptions, and adorned with abundance of jewels; difficult of access, filled with spacious houses, beautified with gardens, and groves of mango-trees, surrounded by a deep and impassable moat, and completely furnished with arms; was ornamented with stately gates and porticoes, and constantly guarded by archers. As Maghavan protects Amarāvatī, so did the magnanimous Daśaratha, the enlarger of his dominions, protects Ayodhyā, fortified by gates, firmly barred, adorned with areas disposed in regular order, and abounding with a variety of musical instruments and warlike weapons; and with artifices of every kind. Prosperous, of unequalled splendour, it was constantly crowded with charioteers and messengers, furnished with śataghnis (lit. an instrument capable of destroying a hundred at once, that is, a cannon) and parighas (a kind of club), adorned with banners and high arched porticoes, constantly filled with dancing girls and musicians, crowded with elephants, horses and chariots, with merchants and ambassadors from various countries, frequented by the chariots of the gods, and adorned with the greatest magnificence. It was decorated with various kinds of jewels, filled with wealth, and amply supplied with provisions, beautified with temples and sacred chariots (large cars), adorned with gardens and bathing tanks and spacious buildings and full of inhabitants. It abounded with learned sages, in honour equal to the immortals; it was embellished with magnificent palaces, the domes of which resembled the tops of mountains, and surrounded with the chariots of the gods like the Amarāvatī of Indra, it resembled a mine of jewels or the residence of Lakṣmī (the goddess of prosperity); the walls were variegated with divers sorts of gems like the division of a chess-board, and it was filled with healthful and happy inhabitants; the houses formed one continued row, of equal height, resounding with the delightful music of the tabor, the flute and the harp."

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"The city, echoing with the twang of the bow, and sacred sound of the Veda was constantly filled with convivial assemblies and societies of happy men. It abounded with food of the most excellent kinds; the inhabitants were constantly fed with the śālī rice; it was perfumed with incense, chaplets of flowers, and articles for sacrifice, by their odour cheering the heart."

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"It was guarded by heroes in strength equal to the quarter-masters and versed in all śāstras; by warriors, who protect it, as the Nāgas guard Bhogavatī. As the great Indra protects his capital, so was this city, resembling that of the gods, protected by King Daśaratha, the chief of the Ikshvākus. This city was inhabited by the twice-born who maintained the constant sacrificial fire, (men) deeply read in the Veda and its six Aṅgas, endowed with excellent qualities, profusely generous, full of truth, zeal, and compassion, equal to the great sages, and having their minds and appetites in complete subjection." (Rāmāyaṇa, I. 5, 5-17).

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"Laṅkā, filled with mad elephants, ever rejoiceth. She is great, thronging with cars and inhabited by Rākshasas. Her doors are firmly established and furnished with massy bolts. And she hath four wide and giant gates. (At those gates) are powerful and large arms, stones, and engines, whereby a hostile host approaching is opposed. At the entrance are arrayed and set in order by bands of heroic Rākshasas, hundreds of sharp iron śataghnis (fire-arms, guns). She hath a mighty impassable golden wall, having its side emblazoned in the centre with costly stones, coral, lapises and pearls. -Round about is a moat, exceedingly dreadful, with cool water, eminently grand, fathomless, containing ferocious aquatic animals, and inhabited by fishes. At the gates are four broad bridges, furnished with machines and many rows of grand structures. On the approach of the hostile forces, their attack is repulsed by these machines, and they are thrown into the ditch. One amongst these bridges is immovable, strong and fast established; adorned with golden pillars and daises . . . . . And dreadful and resembling a celestial citadel, Laṅkā cannot be ascended by means of any support. She hath fortresses composed of streams (cf. Jala-durga), those of hills, and atificial ones of four kinds. And way there is none even for barks, and all sides destitute of division. And that citadel is built on the mountain’s brow; and resembling the metropolis of the immortals, the exceedingly invincible Laṅkā is filled with horses and elephants. And a moat and śataghnis and various engines adorn the city of Laṅkā, belonging to the wicked Rāvaṇa.......his abode consists of woods, hills, moat, gateways, walls, and dwellings.” (Ibid. vi. Laṅkā-kāṇḍa, 3rd. Sarga).

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(9) The Mahābhārata has “short but comprehensive account of the city of Dvārakā (i. 111, 15), Indra-prastha (i. 207, 30 f), the floating city (iii. 173,3), Mithilā (iii. 207,7), Rāvaṇa's Laṅkā (iii. 283,3 and 284,4,30), the sky-town (viii. 33, 19), and the ideal town (xv. 5, 16). In the Rāmāyaṇa we find nearly the same discriptions as those in this later part of the Epic (Mhb.).”

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(10) “We may examine the general plan of a Hindu city . . . . . It had high, perhaps concentric, walls about it, in which were watch-towers. Massive gates, strong doors¹ protected chiefly by a wide bridge moat, the latter filled with crocodiles and armed with palings, guarded the walls. The store-house was built near the rampart. The city was laid out in several squares.¹ The streets were lighted with torches.² The traders and the king's court made this town their residence. The farmers lived in the country, each district guarded if not by a tower modelled on the great city, at least by a fort of some kind. Out of such fort grew the town. Round the town as round the village, was the common land to some distance" (later converted into public gardens, as we see in the Mudrārākshasa).

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¹ xv. 16. 3: the king left Hastināpur by a high gate.

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¹ "The Mbh. recommends six squares, but I find only four mentioned in the Rāmāyaṇa II. 48, 19. Mdh. xv, 5, 16: Puraṁ Sapta-padaṁ sarvato-diśaṁ (town of seven wall, but Hopkin does not think that there were walls.

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² Rāmāyaṇa, VI 112, 12: Sikta-rathyāntarāpaṇa. Mbh. I. 221, 36: Indraprastha is described as sammṛishṭā-sikta-panthā

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"In the city special palaces existed for the king, the princes, the chief priests, ministers and military officers. Besides these and humble dwellings (the larger houses being divided into various courts), there were various assembly-halls, dancing-halls, liquor-saloons, gambling-halls, courts of justice, and the booths of small traders with goldsmiths' shops, and the work-places of other artisans. The arsenal appears to have been not far from the king's apartments. Pleasure-parks abounded. The royal palace appears always to have had its dancing-hall attached. The city-gates ranged in number from four to eleven, and were guarded by squads of men and single wardens.³ Door-keepers guarded the courts of the palace as well as the city gates.⁴" (Hopkin, J. A. O. S. 13, pp. 175, 176).

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³ Kāṭhaka-Upanishad, v. 1, speaks of a town with eleven gates as a possibility (the body is like a town with eleven gates). Nine gates are given to a town by Varāha, p 52, 5: Nava dvāraṁ.....eka-stambhaṁ chatush-patham. Laṅkā has four bridged gates(eight in all and eight walls) (R. VI. 93, 7). Four gates are implied in the 6th act of Mṛichchhakaṭika where the men are told to go to the four quarters to the gates.

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⁴ These courts have mosaic pavements of gold: R. VI 37, 27, 58; Mbh. I. 185, 20; II. 33 and 34."

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(11) "It will probably be a revelation to modern architects to know how scientifically the problems of town-planning are treated in these ancient Indian architectural treatises. Beneath a great deal of mysticism, which may be scoffed at as pure superstition, there is a foundation of sound common sense and scientific knowledge which should appeal to the mind o the European expert."

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"The most advanced science of Europe has not yet improved upon the principles of the planning of the garden cities of India based upon the Indian village-plan as a unit."

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"The Indo-Aryan villages took the lay-out of the garden-plot as the basis of its organisation. But more probably the village scheme was originally the plan of the military camp of the Aryan tribes when they first established themselves in the valley of the Indus."

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(Havel, A study of Indian Civilisation, pp. 7-8, 18).

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(12) The principles of Indian town-planning have some striking similarity to those of early European cities. It would be interesting to compare the Mānasāra with Vitruvius :

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"In setting out the walls of a city the choice of a healthy situation is of the first importance. It should be on high ground neither subject to fogs nor rains : its aspects should be neither violently hot nor intensely cold, but temperate in both respects....

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"A city on the sea-side, exposed to the south or west, will be insalubrious." (Vitruvius, Book I, chap. IV).

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"When we are satisfied with the spot fixed on for the site of the city, as well as in respect of the goodness of the air as of the abundant supply of provisions for the support of the population, the communications by good roads and river or sea navigation for the transport of merchandise, we should take into consideration the method of constructing the walls and towers of the city. These foundations should be carried down to a solid bottom (cf. Mānasāra under 'Garbha-nyāsa') if such can be found, and should be built thereon of such thickness as may be necessary for the proper support of that part of the wall which stands above the natural level of the ground. They should be of the soundest workmanship and materials, and of greater thickness than the walls above. From the exterior face of the wall, towers must be projected, from which an approaching enemy may be annoyed by weapons, from the ambrasures of those towers, right and left. An easy approach to the walls must be provided against: indeed they should be surrounded by uneven ground, and the roads leading to the gates be winding and turn to the left from the gates. By this arrangement the right sides of the attacking troops, which are not covered by their shields, will be open to the weapons of the besieged."

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"The plan of the city should not be square, nor formed with acute angles, but polygonal, so that the motions of the enemy may be open to observation......."

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"The thickness of the walls should be sufficient for two armed men to pass each other with ease. The walls ought to be tied, from front to rear, with many pieces of charred olive wood; by which means the two faces, thus connected, will endure for ages."

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"The distance between each tower should not exceed an arrow's flight...........The walls will be intercepted by the lower parts of the towers where they occur, leaving an interval equal to the width of the tower; which space the tower will consequently occupy. The towers should be made either round or polygonal. A square (tower) is a bad form, on account of its being easily fractured at the quoins by the battering-ram; whereas the circular tower has this advantage, that when battered, the pieces of masonry whereof it is composed being cuneiform, they cannot be driven in towards their centre without displacing the whole mass. Nothing tends more to the security of walls and towers than backing them with walls or terraces: it counteracts the effects of rams as well as of undermining".

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"In the construction of ramparts, very wide and deep trenches are to be first excavated; the bottom of which must be still further dug out for receiving the foundation of the wall. This must be of sufficient thickness to resist the pressure of the earth against it. Then, according to the space requisite for drawing up the cohorts in military order on the ramparts, another wall is to be built within the former, towards the city. The outer and inner walls are then to be connected by cross walls, disposed on the plan after the manner of the teeth of a comb or a saw, so as to divide the pressure of the filling in earth into many and less forces, and thus prevent the walls from being thrust out." The materials are stated to be "what are found in the spot: such as square stones, flint, rubble stones, burnt or unburnt bricks." (Ibid. Book I, chap. v).

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"The lanes and streets (of which no details are given) of the city being set out, the choice of sites for the convenience and use of the state remains to be decided on: for sacred edifices, for the forum, and for other public buildings. If the place adjoin the sea, the forum should be seated close to the harbour: if inland it should be in the centre of the town. The temples of the gods, protectors of the city, as those of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, should be on some eminence which commands a view of the greater part of the city. The temple of Mercury should be either in the forum or, as also the temple of Isis and Serapis in the great public square; those of Apollo and Father Bacchus near the theatre. If there be neither amphitheatre nor gymnasium, the temple of Hercules should be near the circus. The temple of Mars should be out of the city, in the neighbouring country; that of Venus near to the gate. According to the revelations of the Hetrurian Haruspices, the temples of Venus, Vulcan and Mars should be so placed that those of the first be not in the way of contaminating the matrons and youth with the influence of lust; that those of Vulcan be away from the city, which would consequently be freed from the danger of fire; the divinity presiding over that element being drawn away by the rites and sacrifices performing in his temple. The temple of Mars should be also out of the city, that no armed frays may disturb the peace of the citizens, and that this divinity may, moreover, be ready to preserve them from their enemies and the perils of war. The temple of Ceres should be in a solitary spot out of the city, to which the public are not necessarily led but for the purpose of sacrificing to her. This spot is to be reverenced with religious awe and solemnity of demeanour by those whose affairs lead them to visit it. Appropriate situations must also be chosen for the temples and places of sacrifice to the other divinities." (Ibid. Book I, chap. VII).

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(18) Vijitya viśvaṁ vijayābhidhānaṁ viśvottarāṁ yo nagarīṁ vyadhatta ।
Yā hema-kūṭaṁ nija-sāla-bāhu-latā-chhaleneva parishvajantī ॥
Yat-prākāra-śikhāvali-parilasat-kiñjalka-puñjāchitaṁ yach chhākā-pura-jāla-nachitaṁ sad-danti-bhriṅgānvitaṁ ।
Sphāyad yat-parikhā-jala-pratiphalad yat-prānta-pṛithvī-dhara-chchhāyā-nālaṁ idaṁ purābjam aniśaṁ lakshmyā sahālam-bate ॥

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"Having conquered all the world, he (Bukka-Rāja) built a splendid city called the city of victory (Vijayanagarī). Its four walls were like arms stretching out to embrace Hema-kūṭa. The points of the battlemants like its filaments, the

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suburbs like its blossom, the elephants like bees, the hills reflected in the water of the moat like stems,—the whole city resembled the lotus on which Lakshmī is ever seated. " (Ep. Carnat. vol. v. part 1, Channarayapatna Taluq, no. 256, Roman text, p. 521, lines 1-6, Transl. p. 732, para 2, line 4).

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(14) Grāma-nagara-kheḍa-karvvaḍa-maḍamba-droṇa-mukha-pat-tanaṁ galiṁdam aneka-māṭa-kūṭa-prāsāda-devāyatanaṁga-lidaṁ oppuva-agrahāra-paṭṭa-ṇaṁgaliṁdam atiśayav-apya— " (At Teridāḷa, a merchant-town situated in the centre and the first in importance among the twelve (towns) in the glorious Kundi Three-Thousand, adorned with) villages, towns, hamlets, villages surrounded by hills, groups of villages, sea-girt towns, and chief cities, with elegant mansions, palaces and temples, and with shining agrahāra-towns in the country of Kuntala. " (Old Kanarese Inscrip. at Terdal, line 58, Ind. Ant. vol. xiv. pp. 19, 25).

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(15) " With myriads of people, practices of virtue, agreeable occupations, streams of the (nine) sentiments, pleasure-gardens, separated lovers, splendid tanks, full lotus beds, gilded boats for spring festivals, ghaṭikā-sthānas (religious centres), the supports of dharmma and mines of enjoyment, moats which were as if the sea being overcome had returned here on account of the collection of gems, groups of the lotus faces of beautiful women fair as the moon (grāma-nagara-kheḍa-kharvvaṇa-maḍamba-droṇa-mukha-pura -pattana-rāja-dhānī) on whatever side one looked, in these nine forms did the Kuṇṭala-deśa shine. " (It should be noticed that the passage within brackets is almost identical with the corresponding passage in quotation no. 14 above). (Ep. Carnat. vol. vii. Shikārpur Taluq, no. 197, Transl. p. 124, para 1, last seven lines; Roman text, p. 214, line 27 f).

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(16) Visiting "the grāmas, nagaras, kheḍas, kharvvaḍas, maḍambas, paṭṭaṇas, droṇa-mukhas, and saṁvāhanas,—the cities of the elephants at the cardinal points." (Ep. Carnat. vol. VII. Shikārpur Taluq, no. 118, Transl. p. 86, last para, line 14).

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(17) "Thus entitled in many ways to honour, residents of Ayyāvole, Challunki and many other chief grāmas, nagaras, kheḍas, kharvvaḍas maḍambas, droṇamukhas, puras, and pattanas, of Lāḷa Gauḷa, Bangāḷa Kāśmira, and other countries at the points of the compass." (Ibid. no. 119, transl. p. 90, para 6).

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NANDANA—(cf. Nanda-vṛitta)—A storeyed building, a pavilion. A type of building which has six storeys and sixteen cupolas (aṇḍa), and is 32 cubits wide:
(1) Bṛihat-saṁhitā (LVI. 22, J. R. A. S., N.S., vol. VI, p. 319, see under Prāsāda).
(2) Matsya-Purāṇa (chap. 269, v. 29, 33, 48, 53, see under Prāsāda).
(5) Bhavishya-Purāṇa (chap. 130, v. 29, see under Prāsāda). A type of quadrangular building:
(4) Garuḍa-Purāṇa (chap. 47, v. 24-25, see under Prāsāda).
(5) A pavilion with thirty pillars: (Matsya-Purāṇa, chap. 273 v. 12, see under Maṇḍapa, and cf. Suprabhedāgama under Nanda-vṛitta).

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NANDA-VṚITTA—An open pavilion gracefully built with 16 columns. (Suprabhedāgama, XXXI. 101, see under Maṇḍapa).

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NANDI-MAṆḌAPA—(see under Maṇḍapa)—A pavilion. See Pallava Architecture (Arch. Surv. new. Imp. series, vol. XXXIV. plate LXIX, fig. 4).

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NANDYĀVARTA—A type of building, a pavilion, a village, a ground-plan, a joinery, a window, a phallus, an entablature.
(1) Mānasāra: A class of the six-storeyed buildings (M. XXIV. 24, see under Prāsāda). A class of villages (M. IX. 2, see under Grāma). A kind of joinery (M. XVII. 54, see under Sandhi-karman).

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A type of window (M. XXXIII. 583, see under Vātāyana).

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A type of four-faced pavilion (M. XXXIV. 555, see under Maṇḍapa).

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In connection with the phallus (M. LII. 177, see under Liṅga).

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In connection with the ground-plan (M. VIII. 35, see under Pada-vinyāsa).

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(2) Nandyāvartam alindaiḥ śālā-kuḍyāt pradakshiṇāntargataiḥ । Dvāraṁ paśchimam asmin vihāya śeshaṁ kāryāṇi ॥

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"Nandyāvarta is the name of a building with terraces that from the wall of the room extend to the extremity in a direction from east to south (alias from left to right). It must have doors on every side, except the west."

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(Bṛihat-saṁhitā, LIII. 32, J. R. A. S., N. S., vol. VI. p. 285).

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(3) Sarvatobhadram ashṭāsyaṁ vedāsyaṁ vardha-mānakam ॥ Dakshiṇe chottare chaiva shaṇ-ṇetraṁ svastikaṁ matam । Pārśvayoḥ purataś chaiva chatur-netra-samāyutam ॥ Nandyāvartaṁ smṛitaṁ pūrve dakshiṇe paśchime tathā । Uttare saumya-śālādi śālānām āsyam īritam ॥ (Kāmikāgama, XXXV. 88, 89, 90).

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An entablature (ibid. LIV. 7).

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Ibid. XLI. (named Nandyāvarta-vidhi: 1-37) :

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The three sizes (1-6), and the four classes, namely, jāti, chhanda, vikalpa and ābhāsa (7-9) :

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Nandyāvartaṁ chatush-paṭṭam mūlenātra vihīnakam । Dvāraṁ chatushṭayaṁ vāpi yatheshṭha-diśi vā bhavet ॥ 7 Jālakaś cha kavāṭaś cha bāhye bāhye prakalpayet । Sarvataḥ kuḍya-saṁyuktaṁ mukhya-dhāmātra kīrtitam ॥ 8 Antar-vivṛita-pādaṁ cha bāhye kuḍyaṁ prakīrtitam । Chatur-dikshu vinishkrāntam ardha-kūṭaṁ prayojayet ॥ Daṇḍikā-vāra-saṁyuktaṁ jāti-rūpam idaṁ matam ॥ 9

v1.c6.s20.69

The other details of this and the remaining three classes and the sub-classes are also given (10-36) :

v1.c6.s20.70

Evaṁ shoḍaśadhā proktaṁ nandyāvartaṁ dvijottamāḥ || 37

v1.c6.s20.71

(4) A class of buildings :

v1.c6.s20.72

. . . . . Nandyāvartam iti śṛiṇu |

v1.c6.s20.73

Chatush-kūṭāś chatuḥ-śālās chatvāraḥ pārśva-nāsikāḥ || Mukha-nāsī tathā yuktaṁ dvā-daśaṁ chānu-nāsikāḥ | Chatuḥ-sopāna-saṁyuktaṁ bhūmau bhūmau viśeshataḥ || Nandyāvartam idam vatsa . . . . . ||

v1.c6.s20.74

(Suprabhedāgama, XXXI. 48, 49, 50). A pavilion with 36 columns (ibid. XXXI. 103, see under Maṇḍapa).

v1.c6.s20.75

NANDIKA—A type of quadrangular building. (Agni-Purāṇa, chap. 104, v. 14-15, see under Prāsāda).

v1.c6.s20.76

NANDI-VARDHANA—A type of building.

v1.c6.s20.77

(1) A kind of building which is shaped like the sun-eagle, but is devoid of the wings and tail, has seven storeys and twenty cupolas, and is 24 cubits wide :

v1.c6.s20.78

Garuḍākṛitiś cha garuḍo nandīti cha shaṭ-chatushka-vistīrṇaḥ

v1.c6.s20.79

Kāryaś cha sapta-bhaumo vibhūshito'ṇḍaiś cha viṁśatyā ||

v1.c6.s20.80

Commentary quotes the clearer description from Kāśyapa :

v1.c6.s20.81

Garuḍo garuḍākāraḥ paksha-puchchha-vibhūshitaḥ |

v1.c6.s20.82

Nandī tad-ākṛitir jñeyaḥ pakshādi-rahitaḥ punaḥ || Karāṇāṁ shaṭ-chatushkāṁś cha vistīrṇau sapta-bhūmikau | Daśabhir dvi-guṇair aṇḍair bhūshitau kārayet tu tau ||

v1.c6.s20.83

(Bṛihat-saṁhitā, LVII 24, J. R. A. S., N. S, vol. VI. p. 319).

v1.c6.s20.84

(2) Matsya-Purāṇa (chap. 269, v. 33, 48, 53, see under Prāsāda).

v1.c6.s20.85

(3) Bhavishya-Purāṇa (chap. 130, v. 28, 31, see under Prāsāda). A kind of quadrangular building :

v1.c6.s20.86

(4) Agni-Purāṇa (chap. 104, v. 14-15, see under Prāsāda).

v1.c6.s20.87

NAPUMSAKA—(cf. Strīliṅga and Puṁliṅga)—A neuter type of building, (see under Prāsāda).

v1.c6.s20.88

Cf. Pañcha-varga-yutaṁ miśram arpitānarpitāṅgakaṁ ।
Pāshaṇḍānāṁ idaṁ śastam napuṁsaka-samanvitam ॥
(Kāmikāgama, XLI. 11).

v1.c6.s20.89

For the meaning of pañcha-varga see ibid. XXXV. 21 under Shaḍ-varga.

v1.c6.s20.90

NABHASVĀN—A class of chariots. (M. XLIII. 112, see under Ratha).

v1.c6.s20.91

NAYANONMĪLANA—Chiselling the eye of an image; sculpturally it would imply the finishing touch with regard to making an image. For details see M. LXX. (named Nayanonmīlana) 1-114.

v1.c6.s20.92

NARA-GARBHA—The foundation of the residential buildings. (See details under Garbha-nyāsa).

v1.c6.s20.93

NALĪNAKA—A class of buildings distinguished by open quadrangles surrounded by buildings and furnished with platforms and stairs.

v1.c6.s20.94

Chatuḥ-śālā-samāyukto vedi-sopāna-saṁyutaḥ ।
Nalīnakas tu saṁprokta(-taḥ) . . . . . ॥
(Suprabhedāgama, XXXI. 46).

v1.c6.s20.95

NAVA-TĀLA—The nine-storeyed buildings (M. XXVII. 2-47); the description of the ninth storey (ibid. 35-47); seven classes (2-33). See under Prāsāda.

v1.c6.s20.96

NAVA-TĀLA—A sculptural measurement in accordance with which the whole length of an image is nine times the height of the face which is generally twelve aṅgulas (nine inches); this length is divided into 9 × 12 = 108 equal parts which are proportionally distributed over the different limbs. (See under Tāla-māna).

v1.c6.s20.97

Cf. Nava-tāla-pramāṇas tu deva-dānava-kiṁnarāḥ ।
(Matsya-Purāṇa, chap. 258, v. 16).
Evaṁ nārīshu sarvāsu devānāṁ pratimāsu cha ।
Nava-tālaṁ proktaṁ lakshaṇaṁ pāpa-nāśanam ॥
(Ibid. v. 75).

v1.c6.s20.98

The details of this system of measure employed both for male and female statues are given (ibid. v. 26-74).

v1.c6.s20.99

NAVA-BHŪMI—(same as Nava-tala)—Nine-storeyed buildings, the ninth storey (see Nava-tala).

v1.c6.s20.100

NAVA-RAṄGA—(see Sapta-raṅga)—A detached pavilion (with 108 columns).

v1.c6.s20.101

(1) Sālindaṁ nava-raṅgaṁ syād ashṭottara-śatāṅghrikam।\

v1.c6.s20.102

(M. xxxiv. 107).

v1.c6.s20.103

(2) Koneri “erected a nava-raṅga of 10 aṅkaṇas, with secure foundation and walls, for the god Tirumala of the central street of Maḷalavāḍi.”\

v1.c6.s20.104

(Ep. Carnat. vol. iv. Hunsūr Taluq, no. 1, Transl. p. 83, Roman text, p. 134).

v1.c6.s20.105

(3) Śāntigrāmada nava-raṅgada kalla-bāgilann kaṭṭisi huli-mukhavan—(Deva·Mahārāya) “caused the stone gateway of Sāntigrāma to be constructed and ornamented with the tiger-face. (This work was carried out by Siṅgaṇahebāruva of the village).”\

v1.c6.s20.106

(Ep. Carnat. vol. v. part I, Hassan Taluq, no. 17, Roman text, p. 75, Transl. p. 34).

v1.c6.s20.107

(4) Śrī-gopāla-svāmiyavara nava-raṅga-paṭṭa-śāle-prākāravanu kaṭṭisi—for the god Gopāla “he erected a nava-raṅga-paṭṭa-śāle (a nava-raṅga and a paṭṭaśālā, see below) and an enclosure-wall (and promoted a work of merit).”\

v1.c6.s20.108

Nava-raṅga-prākāra-paṭṭa-śāle-samasta-dharmma—“this nava-raṅga, enclosure-wall, paṭṭa-śālā and all the work of merit were carried out........”\ (Ep. Carnat. vol. v. part I, Channarayapatna Taluq, no. 185, Roman text, p. 467, lines 8,17; Transl. p. 205).

v1.c6.s20.109

(5) Compare Sapta-raṅga (at Comilla in Bengal) which is a pagoda-shaped detached building of seven storeys built on the right side of the raṅga-maṇḍapa, another detached building, facing the front side of the main shrine or temple of the god Jagannātha. All these buildings and the tank behind the shrine are within the enclosing wall (prākāra).

v1.c6.s20.110

(6) “ It (Malleśvara temple at Hulikat) faces north and consists of a garbha-griha, an open sukha-nāsi, a nava-raṅga, and a porch. The garbha-griha, sukha-nāsi and porch are all of the same dimensions being about 4½ feet square, while the nava-raṅga measures 16 feet by 14 feet.” (Mysore Arch. Report, 1915-16, p. 4, para. 10; see also p. 5, para. 12, plate III, fig. 2).

v1.c6.s20.111

“The ‘nava-raṅga’ is an open hall with two rows of four pillars at the side, all the pillars except two being carved with large female figures in relief in the front.” (Ibid. p. 15, para. 19).

v1.c6.s20.112

NĀGA-KALA—A stone on which the image of a serpent is carved. See Chālukyān Architecture (Arch. Surv. new Imp. series, vol. XXI. p. 39, plates XCIX. fig. 2, XC. figs. 2,3).

v1.c6.s20.113

NĀGA-BANDHA—A kind of window resembling the hood of a cobra. (M. XXXIII. 582, see under Vātāyana).

v1.c6.s20.114

NĀGARA—One of the three styles of architecture; it is quadrangular in shape, the other two (Vesara and Drāviḍa) being respectively round and octagonal.

v1.c6.s20.115

(1) Mānasāra :

v1.c6.s20.116

The characteristic features of the three styles :

v1.c6.s20.117

Mūlādi-stūpi-paryantaṁ vedāśraṁ chāyatāśrakam |
Dvyaśraṁ vṛittākṛitaṁ vātha grīvādi-śikharākṛitiḥ |
Stūpi-karṇa-saṁyuktaṁ dvayaṁ vā chaikam eva vā |
Chatur-aśrākṛitiṁ yas tu Nāgaraṁ tat prakīrtitam |
Mūlāgraṁ vṛittam ākāraṁ tad yat āyatam eva vā |
Grīvādi-stūpi-paryantaṁ yuktātho(-dhas) tad yugāśrakam |
Vṛittasyāgre dvyaśrakaṁ tad Vesara-nāmakaṁ bhavet |
Mūlāgrāt stūpi-paryantam ashṭāśraṁ vā shaḍ-aśrakam |
Tad-agraṁ chāyataṁ vāpi grīvasyādho yugāśrakam |

v1.c6.s20.118

Pūrvavach chordhva-deśaṁ syād Drāviḍaṁ tat prakīrtitam ।
Samāśraika-śikhā-yuktaṁ chāyāme tach-chhikhā-trayam ।
Dryaśra-vṛittopari-stūpi vṛittaṁ vā chatur-aśrakam ।
Padmādi-kuḍmalāntaṁ syād uktavad vākṛiti(ṁ) nyaset ।

v1.c6.s20.119

The Nāgara style is distinguished by its quadrangular shape; the Vesara by its round shape, and the Drāviḍa by its octagonal or hexagonal shape:

v1.c6.s20.120

See Suprabhedāgama below and compare :

v1.c6.s20.121

(Referring to the pedestal of the pallus) :

v1.c6.s20.122

Nāgaraṁ chatur-aśraṁ ashṭāśraṁ Drāviḍaṁ tathā ।
Vṛittaṁ cha Vesaraṁ proktam etat pīṭhākṛitis tathā ।

v1.c6.s20.123

These distinguishing features are noticed generally at the upper part of a building:

v1.c6.s20.124

Grīva-mastaka-śikhā-pradeśake ।
Nāgarādi-samalaṅkṛitoktavat ।

v1.c6.s20.125

Nāgara-Drāviḍa-Vesarādīn(-dīnāṁ) śikhānvitam....(harmyam) ।

v1.c6.s20.126

Referring to chariots (ratha) :

v1.c6.s20.127

Vedāśraṁ Nāgaraṁ proktaṁ vasvaśraṁ Drāviḍaṁ bhavet ।
Suvṛittaṁ Vesaraṁ proktaṁ ra(A)ndhraṁ syāt tu shaḍ-aśrakam ।

v1.c6.s20.128

An important addition is noticed in this passage; this style is designated as Randra, which is perhaps a corruption of Andhra.

v1.c6.s20.129

In an ephigraphical record Kaliṅga also is mentioned as a distinct style of architecture (see below).

v1.c6.s20.130

If the identification of Vesara with Telugu or Tri-kaliṅga is accepted (see below), and if the reading Andhra for Randhra is also accepted, the Kaliṅga and the Andhra would be two branches of Vesara. And as the Drāviḍa style is stated to be of the hexagonal or octagonal shape (see above) it would appear that the Drāviḍa proper is octagonal and the Andhra, which is placed between the Drāviḍa and the Vesara, is hexagonal (see further discussion below).

v1.c6.s20.131

The same three styles are distinguished in sculpture also:

v1.c6.s20.132

(Liṅgaṁ) Nāgaraṁ Drāviḍaṁ chaiva Vesaraṁ cha tridhā matam ।
(M. LIII. 76, also 100).
Kuryāt tu nāgare liṅge pīṭhaṁ Nāgaram eva cha ।
Drāviḍe Drāviḍaṁ proktaṁ vesare Vesaraṁ tathā ।
(M. LIII. 46-47, etc).

v1.c6.s20.133

(2) Kāmikagāma (LXV. 6-7, 12-18) :

v1.c6.s20.134

Pratyekaṁ tri-vidhaṁ proktaṁ saṁchitaṁ chāpy-asaṁchitam ।
Upasaṁchitam'ity-evaṁ Nāgaraṁ Drāviḍaṁ tathā ॥ 6
Veśaraṁ cha tathā jātiś chhando vaikalpaṁ eva cha ॥ 7
Savistāra-vaśāch chhanna-hasta-pūrnāyātānvitaṁ ।
Yugmāyugma-vibhāgena Nāgaraṁ syāt samīkṛitaṁ ॥ 12
Antara-prastaropetaṁ ūha-pratyūha-saṁyutaṁ ।
Nivra-sandhāra-saṁstambha-vrāte paridṛiḍhaiḥ śubhaiḥ ॥ 13
Drāviḍaṁ vakshyate’ thātaḥ vistāra-dvayorghakam(?) ।
Raktāchchhanna-pratikshepāt yugmāyugma-viśeshataḥ ॥ 14
Hitvā tatra samībhūtaṁ bhadrālaṅkāra-saṁyutaṁ ।
Aneka-dvāra-saṁyuktaṁ shaḍ-vargaṁ Drāviḍam smṛitaṁ ॥ 15
Labdha-vyāsāyataṁ yat tu nātiriktaṁ na hīnakaṁ ।
Bahu-varga-yutaṁ vāpi daṇḍikā-vāra-śobhitaṁ ॥ 16
Mahā-vāraṁ vimānordhve nirvūhānana-saṁyutaṁ (?) ।
Sakshetropeta-madhyāṅghri-yuktaṁ tad Vesaram matam ॥ 17

v1.c6.s20.135

Yatīnāṁ gaṇikānāṁ cha jīvināṁ krura-karmaṇaḥ |
Praśastaṁ Vesaraṁ teshāṁ anyeshāṁ itare śubhe || 18

v1.c6.s20.136

The details of the three styles are described more briefly but explicitly in the following Āgama:

v1.c6.s20.137

(3) Suprabhedagama (xxxi. 37-39) :

v1.c6.s20.138

Dvāra-bhedam idaṁ proktaṁ jāti-bhedaṁ tataḥ śṛiṇu || 37
Nāgaraṁ Drāviḍaṁ chaiva Vesaraṁ cha tridhā matam |
Kaṇṭhād ārabhya vṛittaṁ yad Vesaram iti smṛitam || 38
Grivaṁ ārabhya chāshṭāṁśaṁ vimānaṁ Drāviḍākhyakam |
Sarvaṁ vai chaturaśraṁ yat prāsādaṁ Nāgaraṁ tu-idam || 39

v1.c6.s20.139

According to this Āgama, the buildings of the Nāgara style are quadrangular from the base to the top; those of the Drāviḍa style are octagonal from the neck to the top ; and those of the Vesara style are round from the neck to the top. Apparently the lower part of the buildings of the two latter styles is quadrangular.

v1.c6.s20.140

(4) Svair aṅgula-pramāṇair dvā-daśa-vistīrṇaṁ āyataṁ cha mukham |

v1.c6.s20.141

Nagnajitā tu chatur-daśa dairghyeṇa Drāviḍa(m) kathitam ||

v1.c6.s20.142

According to one's own aṅgula (finger) the face (of his own statue) is twelve aṅgulas long and broad. But according to (the architect) Nagnajit it should be fourteen aṅgulas in the Drāviḍa style.

v1.c6.s20.143

The commentary quotes Nagnajit in full :

v1.c6.s20.144

Vistīrṇaṁ dvā-daśa-mukhaṁ dairghyeṇa cha chatur-daśa |
Aṅgulāni tathā kāryaṁ tan-mānaṁ Drāviḍaṁ smṛitam ||

v1.c6.s20.145

The face should be twelve aṅgulas broad and fourteen aṅgulas long : such a measure is known as Drāviḍa (i. e., this is the Draviḍa style of measurement).

v1.c6.s20.146

(5) "Like the face of the lady Earth shone the Vanavāse-nāḍ on which Nāgara-khaṇḍa at all times was conspicuous like the tilaka, a sign of good fortune, (then follows a description of its groves, gardens, tanks, etc). In the Nāgara-khaṇḍa shone the splendid Bāndhavanagara."

v1.c6.s20.147

"In Nāgara-khaṇḍa, like the mouths of Hara, were five agrahāras, from which proceeded the sounds of all Brāhmans reading and teaching the reading of all the Vedas, Purāṇas, moral precepts, śastras, logic, āgamas, poems, dramas, stories, smṛiti, and rules for sacrifices."

v1.c6.s20.148

(Ep. Carnat. vol. VII. Shikarpur Taluq, no. 225, Transl. p. 132, paras 6, 7; Roman text, p. 229, line 24 to p. 235, line 2).

v1.c6.s20.149

(6) "In the world beautiful is the Kuntala-land, in which is the charming Vanavāsa country; in it is the Nāgara-khaṇḍa, in which was the agreeable Bāndhavapura. (The list of its trees and other attractions). In that royal city (rājadhāni) was formerly a king of that country famed for his liberality, Sovi-deva."

v1.c6.s20.150

(Ibid. no. 235, Transl. p. 135, para 2; Roman text, p. 238, line 20 f).

v1.c6.s20.151

(7) Nāgari-khāṇḍa and Nāgari-khaṇḍa (ibid. no. 236, Transl. p. 137, paras 3, 4), Nāgara-khaṇḍa seventy (no. 240, Transl. p. 138), Nāgara-khaṇḍa-nāḍa (no. 241, Transl. p. 138), Nāgara-khaṇḍa (no. 243, Roman text, p. 248, line 8), Nāgara-khaṇḍa seventy (no. 267, Transl. p. 143, last para, line 7), Nāgari-khaṇḍa seventy (no. 277, Transl. p. 145, largest para, line 5).

v1.c6.s20.152

(8) Nāgara-bhuktau vālavi-vaishayika-śaiva . . . padraḷik (?ksh)āntaṣh-pati Vāruṇikā-grāma—"Of the village of Vāruṇikā, which lies . . . . in the Nāgara bhukti, (and) belonging to the Vālavi-vishaya."

v1.c6.s20.153

(Deo Baranark Inscrip. of Jivitagupta II, lines 6–7; C. I. I. vol. III. F. G. I. no. 46, pp. 216, 218).

v1.c6.s20.154

(9) "When that king (king Harihara's son Deva-Rāya) of men was ruling the kingdom in peace and wisdom, shining in beauty beyond all countries was the entire Karnnāṭa province; and in that Karnnāṭa country famous was the Gutti-nāḍ, which contained eighteen Kampaṇas in which the most famous nāḍ was 'Nāgara-khaṇḍa' to which Kuppaṭūr was an ornament, owing to the settlement of the Bhavyas (or Jains), and its Chaityālayas, beautiful with lotus-ponds, pleasure-gardens and fields of gandha-śāli rice. (Further description of its attractions)."
(Ep. Carnat. vol. VIII. part I, Sorab Taluq, no. 261, Roman text, p. 82, Transl. p. 41).

v1.c6.s20.155

(10) "In the island of Jambu trees (Jambu-dvīpa), in the Bharata-kshetra, near the holy mountain (Śrīdhara), protected by the wise Chandragupta, an abode of the good usages of eminent Kshatriyas, filled with a population worthy of gifts (dakshiṇā-pātra), a place of unbroken wealth, was the district (vishaya) named Nāga-khaṇḍa of good fortune, possessed of all comforts, and from being ever free from destruction (laya) of the wise, called Nilaya (an asylum). There, adorned with gardens of various fruit trees (named), shines the village named Kuppaṭūr, protected by Gopeśa. There, like the forehead-ornament to the wife, in the territory of king Harihara, was a Jina Chaityālaya which had received a śāsana from the Kadambas."
(Ibid. no. 263, Roman text, p. 86, Transl. p. 43).

v1.c6.s20.156

The identity of Nāgara-khaṇḍa with Nāga-khaṇḍa is undoubted owing to the fact that the one and same village Kuppaṭūr is contained in both.

v1.c6.s20.157

(11) "The headman of Piṭhamane village, the first in the Kuppaṭūr Twenty-six of the Nāgara-khaṇḍa Malu-nāḍ,

v1.c6.s20.158

belonging to the Chandragutti-venthe of the Banavāsi Twelve Thousand in the South country....." (Ep. Carnat. vol. VIII. part I, Sorab Taluq, no. 265, Roman text, p. 87, Transl. p. 43).

v1.c6.s20.159

(12) "In Jambud-vīpa, in the Karnnāṭaka-vishaya, adorned with all manner of trees (named) is Nāgara-khaṇḍa." (Ep. Carnat. vol. VIII. part I, Sorab Taluq, no. 329, Transl. p. 58, para. 2, line 4).

v1.c6.s20.160

(13) The expression 'Nāgara-kaṇḍa Seventy' occurs in several of the Sorab Taluq Inscriptions, e.g., nos. 326, 327, 328, 336, 337, etc.

v1.c6.s20.161

"To the ocean-girdled earth like a beautiful breast formed for enjoyment was Nāgara-khaṇḍa in the Banavāsi-maṇḍala." (Ibid. no. 345, Transl. p. 60).

v1.c6.s20.162

(14) "In the ocean-girdled Jambu-dīva (dvīpa) is the Mandara mountain; to the south of which is the Bharata-kshetra, in which is..........., wherein is the beautiful Nāgara-khaṇḍa. Among the chief villages of that nāḍ is the agrahāra named Kuppaṭūra."

v1.c6.s20.163

"Grants were also made (as specified) by the oil-mongers, the betel-sellers and the gaṇḍas (?) of Nāgara-khaṇḍa for the perpetual lamp." (Ibid. no. 276, Transl. p. 47).

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(15) "In the pleasant Nāgara-khaṇḍa is the agrahāra which is jewel mirror to the earth, the beautiful Kuppaṭūr, with its splendid temples, its golden towers, its lofty mansions, its streets of shops, its interior surrounded with a moat, its..........., and the houses of dancing girls,—how beautiful to the eyes was Kuppaṭūr. It surpassed Alakāpura, Amarāvatī and Bhogavatī. Within that village, vying with Kailāśa, stood the temple of Koṭinātha, built by Viśvakarmmā and carved with complete devotion, planned in perfect accordance with the many rules of architecture, and freely decorated with *drāviḍa*, *bhumija* and *nāgara*.” “These and bhadropeta appear to be technical terms of the Śilpa-śāstra or science of architecture.” Mr. Rice. (They are evidently the three styles of architecture called the Drāviḍa, Vesara and Nāgara in the Mānasāra and elsewhere). (Ep. Carnat. vol. VIII. part I, Sorab Taluq, no. 275, Roman text, p. 92, line 9 from bottom upwards, Transl. p. 46, note 1).

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(16) “The earliest Vijayanagar inscription (Sb. 263, noted above) contains the interesting statement that the district (vishaya) named Nāga-khaṇḍa (generally Nāgara-khaṇḍa, corresponding more or less with the Shikārpur Taluq) was (formerly) protected by the wise Chandragupta, an abode of the usages of eminent Kshatriyas.” (Ep. Carnat. vol. VIII. part I, Introduction p. 11, para 5).

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(17) The Sorab Taluq Inscriptions (no. 261 f) have reference to Nāgara-khaṇḍa and its pompous buildings (temples), picturesque gardens and other natural and artificial beauties. From these it may be inferred that the buildings of Nāgara-khaṇḍa possessed, as stated in the Mānasāra, a distinct style of architecture like those of the Drāviḍa and Vesara countries.

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(18) Compare Fah Hian’s Kingdom of the Dakshiṇa (Ind. Ant. vol. VII. pp. 1-7, note 2) :

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“Going two hundred yojanas south from this, there is a country called Ta-thsin (Dakshiṇa). Here is a Saṅghārāma of the former Buddha, Kāśyapa. It is constructed out of a great mountain of rock hewn to the proper shape. This building has altogether five storeys. The lowest is shaped into the form of an elephant, and has five hundred stone cells in it. The second is in the form of a lion and has four hundred chambers. The third is shaped like a horse, and has three hundred chambers. The fifth storey is in the shape of a dove, and has one hundred chambers in it. At the very top of all is a spring of water, which, flowing in a stream before the rooms, encircles each tier, and so, running in a circuitous course, at last arrives at the very lowest storey of all, where, flowing past the chambers as before, it finally issues through the door of the building. Throughout the consecutive tiers, in various parts of the building, windows have been pierced through the solid rock for the admission of light, so that every chamber is quite illuminated, and there is no darkness (throughout the whole). At the four corners of this edifice they have hewn out the rock into steps, as a means for ascending. Men of the present time point out a small ladder which reaches up to the highest point (of the rock) by which men of old ascended it, one foot at a time (?). They derive the name which they give to this building, viz. Po-loya, from an Indian word (pārāvata) signifying 'pigeon.' There are always Arhats abiding here. This land is hilly and barren, without inhabitants. At a considerable distance from the hill there are villages, but all of them are inhabited by heretics. They know nothing of the law of Buddha or Śramans, of Brāhmaṇs, or of any of the different schools of learning. The men of that country continually see persons come flying to the temple. On a certain occasion there were some Buddhist pilgrims from different countries who came here with a desire to pay religious worship at this temple. Then the men of the villages above alluded to ask them saying 'Why do you not fly to it? We behold the religious men who occupy those chamber constantly on the wing.' 'Because our wings are not yet perfectly formed.' The country of Ta-thsin is precipitous, and the road dangerous and difficult to find. Those who wish to go there ought to give a present to the king of the country, either money or goods. The king then deputes certain men to accompany them as guides, and so they pass the travellers from one place to another, each party pointing out their own roads and intricate bye-paths. Fah Hian finding himself in the end unable to proceed to that country, reports in the above passages merely what he heard."

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(Beal's Travels of Fah Hian and Sung-Yun, pp. 139, 141).

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(19) "The territory (Drāviḍa) which also includes the northern half of Ceylon, extends northwards up to an irregular line drawn from a point on the Arabian sea about 1,000 miles below Goa along the Western Ghats as far as Kolhapur, thence north-east through Hyderabad, and farther eastwards to the Bay of Bengal." (Encyclopædia Brit. ed. 11, p. 550).

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(20) Vesara is otherwise called Andhra or Telugu. "The old Telugu country covers about 8000 square miles, and is bounded on the east by the Bay of Bengal, on the north by the river Godāvarī, on the south by the Kṛishṇā." (Dr. Barnett, Catalogue of the Telugu Books, Preface).

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The boundaries of the Telugu or Vesara country are given in detail in the Linguistic Survey of India: "The Telugu country is bounded towards the east by the Bay of Bengal from about Barwa in the Ganjam district in the north to Madras in the south. From Barwa the frontier line goes westwards through Ganjam to the Eastern Ghats, and then southwards, crosses the Sobari on the border of the Sunkum and the Bijai Talukas in the Baster state, and thence runs along the range of the Bela Dila to the Indravatī. It follows that river to its confluence with the Godāvarī, and then runs through Chanda, cutting off the southern part

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of the district, and further eastwards, including the southern border of the district Wun. It then turns southwards to the Godāvarī at its confluence with the Mañjira, and thence farther south, towards Bidar, where Telugu meets with Kanarese."
(Linguistic Survey of India, vol. iv. p. 577).

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See also the following : Trikāṇḍaśesha (Bibl. 258, Cal. 2, 8, 44). Hemachandra-Abhidhāna-chintāmaṇi, (12, 53). Halāyudha (2, 295). Naishadha-kārikā (Bibl. Cal. 10, 8). Brihadāraṇyaka-upanishad (8, 15). Śiśupālabadha (Bibl. 141, Cal. 12, 19).

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(21) Nāgara seems to be a very popular geographical name (see J. A. S. B. 1896, vol. lxv, part I, pp. 116-117) :

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It is clear from the references that Nāgara was formerly the capital of Birbhum in Bengal; that Nāgara is the name of a famous port in Tanjore; that it is the name of an extensive division in Mysore; that a town named Nāgara and an ancient place called Nāgarakota are situated on the Bias in the district of Kangra, in the Punjab; that we find Nāgaravasti in Darbhanga, the town Nāgaraparken in Sindh and Nāgarakhas in the district of Basti; that there is a number of ancient villages in the Deccan called Nāgaram; and that Nāgara is the name of two rivers in North Bengal, the name of a village in the district of Dacca; and that of some 9 or 10 places, called Nāgara in Rajputana proper, three are towns; that a fortified village in the Santal Parganah is called Nāgara. The ancient Madhyamikā, which was once besieged by Menander, is now called Nāgarī near Chitor (Smith's History, p. 187). Hieun Tsiang also mentions Nāgara (modern Jellalabad) which was a province of ancient Kapiśa (Kādphisa), the people whereof were the followers of Buddha (see his *Travels*, Index).

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The Nāgaras are mentioned in the list of countries and peoples, given in the Yogavāsiṣṭha-Rāmāyaṇa (Utpatti-prakaraṇa, xxxv, 33) as a people. The same list refers to the Drāviḍas (ibid. 40) also as a people living south of the mount Chitra-kūṭa, below the river Godāvarī. In this list the Andhras, Kaliṅgas, and Chaulikas are clearly distinguished from the Drāviḍas (ibid. 26-27).

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Nāgara is the name of a script also, mostly prevailing in Northern India. There lives a powerful tribe called Nāgara, in the mountainous tract of Kabul in Afghanistan. Nāgara is the designation of a sect of Brahmins also who, it is held, came over from some part in Northern India and settled down in Gujrat at a place known as Nāgarānandapura. From these Nāgara Brāhmans, it is said, came the use of the Nāgarī alphabet. A portion (part VI) of the Skanda-Purāṇa bears the name Nāgara-khaṇḍa. From this instance, it would appear that the expression Nāgara is at least as old as the Nāgara-khaṇḍa incorporated into the Skanda-Purāṇa which was, according to a general concensus, composed in honour of, or, at least, named after Skandagupta (455-480 A. D.), the seventh Emperor of the early Gupta dynasty.

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Why the Nāgara-khaṇḍa, the 6th part of the Skanda-Purāṇa, is so called is not explained explicity in the Purāṇa itself. But from the contents of chapters 114, 163, 199, 200, 201 and 203 of this (6th) part, it seems to have been named after the Nāgara Brāhmins. The etymological origin of the term *nagara* is, however, explained in chapter 114 of the Nāgara-khaṇḍa. It is stated (vv. 76, 77, 78, 93) to have arisen from an incantation of snake-poisoning (cf. verses 1-113, *nagara*, no poison). Compare

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the following:
Garaṁ vishaṁ iti proktaṁ na tatrāsti cha sāmpratam ॥
Na garaṁ na garaṁ chaitach chhrutvā ye pannagādhamāḥ ।
Tatra sthāsyanti te vadhyā bhavishyanti yathā-sukham ॥
Adya prabhṛiti tat sthānaṁ (Chamatkāra-puraṁ) nagarā-
khyaṁ dharā-tale ।
Bhavishyati su-vikhyātaṁ tava kīrtti-vivarddhanam ॥
Evaṁ tan nagaraṁ jātam asmāt kālād anantaram ॥
(Skanda-Purāṇa, part vi, Nāgarakhaṇḍa, chap. 114,
v. 76, 77, 78, 93).

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From all the literary and epigraphical instances given above, it appears certain that the expressions Nāgara, Vesara, and Drāviḍa are primarily geographical. But the precise boundaries of Nāgara, like those of Drāviḍa and Vesara, are not traceable. The epigraphical quotations, however, would tend to localise Nāgara somewhere within the territory of modern Mysore. But the Nāgara script, the Nāgara-khaṇḍa of the Skanda-Purāṇa, and the Nāgara-Brāhmins, representing some way or other the Northern India from the Himalaya to the Vindhya and from Gujrat to Magadha, would jointly give a wider boundary to Nāgara. Besides the author of the Mānasāra shows his acquaintance with buildings of the whole of India in the passage where he divides the best types of buildings by the following designations, namely, Pāñchāla, Drāviḍa, Madhya-kānta (meaning apparently Madhyadeśa), Kaliṅga, Varāṭa (Virāṭa), Kerala, Vaṁśaka, Magadha, Janaka, and Sphū(Gu)rjaka (M. xxx. 5-7).

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If the country of Nāgara, like those of Drāviḍa and Vesara, be included in Southern India, in other words, if Northern India be excluded from the scope of the styles of buildings mentioned in records quoted above, the passage, mentioning the ten different types of buildings of the ten countries covering the whole of India, will have to be treated as what is called a spurious record, a term under which the conflicting ideas are reconciled by many a scholar. Let whatever be the boundaries of Nāgara. It is clear beyond doubt that the three styles of architecture have arisen from three geographical names, Nāgara, Vesara, and Drāviḍa. And there we have a parallel instance of similar divisions in the early Grecian architecture:

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The three ancient orders—the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian—on which were based the three styles of Grecian architecture have been traced by Vitruvius, an authority on architecture of the first century.

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“In this country (Smyrna) allotting different spots for different purposes, they began to erect temples, the first of which was dedicated to Apollo Panionios, and resembled that which they had seen in Achaia, and they gave it the name of Doric, because they had first seen that species in the cities of Doria.” (Book iv. chap. 1).

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Gwilt comments on it thus: “The origin of the Doric order is a question not easily disposed of. Many provinces of Greece bore the name of Doria; but the name is often the least satisfactory mode of accounting for the birth of the thing which bears it.” (Encycl. Art. 142).

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