Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v2.c13.s1: II Buddhist Literature

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v2.c13.s1

Language: English

II Buddhist Literature

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"In the Buddha's time and in that portion of northern India where the Buddhist influence was most early felt—that is to say, in the districts including and adjoining those now called the United Provinces and Behar"—the arrangements of villages were practically similar. "We nowhere hear of isolated houses. The houses were all together, in a group, separated only by narrow lanes. Immediately adjoining was the sacred grove of trees of the primeval forest ........ .. Beyond this was the wide expanse of cultivated field, usually rice field." Villagers are described as "uniting of their own accord to build mote-hills and rest-houses and reservoirs, to mend the roads between their own and adjacent villages, and even to lay out parks."¹

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¹ ^1 *Buddhist India*, Rhys Davids, 42, 45, 49: compare *Jat*. I. 199.

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The exact details of town-planning are not available. But "we are told of lofty walls, ramparts with buttresses and watch-towers and great gates; the whole surrounded by a moat or even a double moat, one of water and one of mud. But we are nowhere told of the length of the fortifications or of the extent of the space they enclosed. It would seem that we have to think not so much of a large walled city as of a fort surrounded by a number of suburbs .. . From the frequent mention of the windows of the great houses opening directly on to the streets or squares it would appear that it was not the custom to have them surrounded by any private grounds. There were, however, no doubt, enclosed spaces behind the fronts of the houses, which latter abutted on the streets."²

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² ^2 R. D. ibid. pp 65-64. Cf The hill fortress, Girivraja, four and a half miles in circumference, is said to have been built by Mahā-Govinda, the architect. Bimbisāra is stated to have built Rājagṛiha, king's house, which was three miles in circumference. "The stone walls of Girivraja are the oldest extant stone buildings in India." Mention is also made of Ayojjhā, Bārāṇasī, Kampilla, Kosāmbī, Madhurā, Mithilā, Sāgala, Sāketa, Sāvatthi, Ujjeni, Vesāli and other cities, of which however few architectural details are given (Vimāna-Vatthu, commentary, p. 82). Compare *Dīgh*. XIX, 36:

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दन्तपुरं कालिङ्गानमस्सकानाञ्च पोतनम् ।
माहिस्सतो अवन्तीनम् सोवीरानञ्च रोरुकम् ॥
मिथिला च विदेहानम् चम्पा अङ्गेसु मापिला ।
वाराणसो च कासीनम् एते गोविन्द-मापितेति ॥

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See Rhys. Davids, ibid. p. 38.

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But detached references to individual buildings, as distinct from villages and towns, are found in abundance in the canonical texts as well as the Jātakas. At places it appears as if Buddha were delivering discourses on architecture. As a matter of fact, he enjoined upon his devotees the supervision of building construction as one of the duties of the order.¹ It is stated in one of the early texts that the Bhikkhus were told on a certain occasion by the Blessed One, after the delivery of a religious discourse, with respect to dwellings, thus: 'I allow you, O Bhikkhus, abodes of five kinds—*Vihāra*, *Arddhayoga*, *Prāsāda*, *Harmya*, and *Guhā*.'²

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¹ *Chullavagga*, VI 17, 1; transl pp. 212-216.

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² *Vinaya texts*, *Mahavagga*, I 30, 4, p. 173-74; *Chullavagga*, VI. 1, 2, p. 158.

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Buildings are thus divided into five classes. But the details of the distinguishing features are not methodically given in the texts, obviously because these are not architectural treatises.³

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³ The commentator Buddhaghosha has, however, submitted an explanatory note. *Vihāra* is the well known Buddhist monastery *Ardha-yoga*, which literally means 'half-joining', is stated by this commentator to imply *Suvarṇa-vanga-geha* or "gold-coloured Bengal house" as rendered by Oldenberg and Rhys Davids. There appear, however, no such houses in Bengal, nor is this class of buildings mentioned in the Śilpa-śāstras. It is clear, however, that these are meant to imply some sort of luxurious buildings of the then Bengal. Regarding *prāsāda* Buddhaghosha simply says that it is a long *Prāsāda*. Rhys Davids has made several conjectures,—"a long storied mansion, or the whole of an upper storey, or the storied buildings." Sir M M. Williams seems to explain this by "the monks' hall for assembly and confession." *Harmya* is stated to be a *prāsāda* with an upper chamber placed on the topmost storey. The references to the uses of *prāsāda* and *harmya* as found in the Śilpa-śāstras, general Sanskrit literature, and the archæological records will be found in the writer's *Dictionary* under those terms. *Guhā* literally means cave and would seem to refer to underground buildings. One of the Jātakas (*Ummagga*, p. 430) actually contains an elaborate description of an underground palace, and there are the rock cut temples as in the famous Ajanta caves. According to Buddhaghosha these *guhā* buildings are of four kinds, namely, those built of bricks, stone, wood, or earth. Rhys Davids has rendered *śilāguhā* by 'hut made in a rock, and left out the translation of *paṁśu* (Sanskrit *pāṁśu*, meaning sand, dust, or crumbling soil) *guhā*. Buddhaghosha has thus explained the *pañcha-lenāni* under Mahāvagga 1.30 4—

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*Vihāras* are the well known monasteries or temples of the Buddhists, originally implying halls where the monks met. *Ardhayogas* seem to be a special kind of Bengal buildings partly religious and partly residential. *Prāsādas* are wholly residential storeyed buildings; *Harmyas* are a larger and more pompous

v2.c13.s1.13

‘अड्डयोगो’ ति सुवन्नवङ्गगेहम्। पासादो’ ति दीघपासादो। हम्मियन् ति उपरि आकासतले पतिट्ठितकूटगारो पासादो येव। गुहा’ ति इट्ठकगुहा सिलागुहा दारुगुहा पंसुगुहा।
Compare also Oldenberg and Rhys Davids, Vinaya texts, translation, *Mahāvagga*, p 173, note, also *Chullavagga*, p. 158, note 2.

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type of storeyed buildings. *Guhās* seem to be less dignified buildings, originally built underground for middle-class people. The extensiveness of these buildings can be imagined from the length of time devoted to getting a house completely built. Thus, it is stated that "with reference to the work of a small *Vihāra*, it may be given in charge (to an overseer) as a *Navakamma* (new work) for a period of five or six years, that on an *Aḍḍhayoga* for a period of seven or eight years, that on a large *Vihāra* or a *Pāsāda* for ten or twelve years."¹ That the long periods were not idled away will be clear from the following details of houses gathered from the Vinaya texts.²

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¹ *Chullavagga*, VI. 17, 1;(Translation, page 214).

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² *Chullavagga*, VI. V, etc., and *Mahavagga*.

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The selection of building sites shows a highly developed good taste. The *ārāma* (rest-house), well fitted for quiet people, is stated to be built "not too far from the town and not too near, convenient for going and for coming, easily accessible for all who wish to visit him, by day not too crowded, by night not exposed to too much noise and alarm . . . ."³ The whole compound is enclosed with ramparts (*prākāra*) of three kinds, namely, brick walls, stone walls, and wooden fences, which are again surrounded with bamboo fences, thorn fences, and ditches.⁴

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³ *Chullavagga*, VI. 4, 8; (Translation, page 187).

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⁴ *Ibid.* VI. 3. 7, 10, (Translation, pages 176–7, 187).

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Houses were built comprising "dwelling-rooms and retiring-rooms, and store-rooms, and service halls and halls with fire-places in them, and store-houses, and closets, and cloisters, and halls for exercise, and wells, and sheds for the well, and bath-rooms, and halls attached to the bath-rooms, and ponds, and open-roofed sheds (maṇḍapas)."⁵ These buildings are meant to be dwelling houses; so it is stated that "an *upāsaka* (devotee) has built for his own use a residence, a sleeping room, a stable, a tower, a one-peaked building, a shop, a *boutique*, a storeyed house, an attic, a cave, a cell, a store-room, a refectory, a fire-room, a kitchen, a privy, a place to walk in, a house to walk in, a well, a well-house, a *yantra-griha* (which is supposed by Bühler to be 'a bathing place for hot sitting baths'), a *yantra-griha* room, a lotus pond and a pavilion."⁶

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⁵ *Chullavagga*, VI. 4, 10; (Translation, page 189).

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⁶ *Mahāvagga*, III. 5, 9;(Translation, page 304), also III. 5, 6; (Translation, page 303).

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The inner chambers are divided into three classes, called *Śivikā-garbha* or square halls, *Nālikā-garbha* or rectangular halls, and *Harmya-garbha* which appears to be a large dining-hall.¹ The verandahs (*alinda*) seem to have been a special characteristic of these buildings. The Blessed One (Buddha) says, "I allow you, O Bhikkhus, covered terraces, inner verandahs, and over-hanging caves."² The storeyed buildings (*prāsāda*) are stated to be furnished with "a verandah to it, supported on pillars" with capitals of elephant-head.³

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¹ About the last Buddhaghosha seems to be doubtful and says **हम्मियगब्भो ति कुटागार-गब्भो मुदण्डच्छादनगब्भो वा;**—but about the other two terms he is clear: **सिविकागब्भो ति चतुरस्सगब्भो; नालिकागब्भो ति वित्थारतो द्विगुणतिगुणायामो दीघगब्भो** (*Chullavagga*, VI. 3. 3). But Oldenberg and Rhys Davids seem to have been wholly misled when they translate these last two by "palankeen shaped and quait measure shaped" about the latter of which Indians of even to-day are quite unfamiliar.

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² *Chullavagga*, VI. 3. 5. (Translation, page 175), commented on by Buddhaghosha: **आलिन्दो नाम पमुखं वुच्चति।** (Compare *Abhidhānappadīpikā*, verse 218). **पघनं नाम यं निक्खमन्ता च पविसन्ता च पादेहि हनन्ति, तस्स विहार द्वारं उभतो कुड्डं निहरित्वा कतपदेसस्स एतं अधिवचनम्, पघनानन ति पि वुच्चति। पकुट्ठन ति मज्झे गब्भस्स समन्ता परियागारो वुच्चति पकुटन् ति पाठो। ओसरको ति अनालिन्दके वंसं दत्वा ततो दण्डके ओसारेत्वा कतं छादनपमुखं।**

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³ Ibid. VI. 14. 1. (Translation, page 208): **हत्थिनखकं** supported on the frontal globes (*kumbha*) of elephants, says Buddhaghosha.

v2.c13.s1.27

Details of gates, doors and windows are also elaborate. Gateways are built with rooms and ornamental screen-work over them⁴. And gates are made of stakes interlaced with thorny brakes.⁵

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⁴ *Chullavagga*, VI. 4 10 (Translation, page 189); 3. 10, **तोरण** of which excellent examples in stone have been found at the Sāñchī and Bharhut Topes, (Translation, page 178).

v2.c13.s1.29

⁵ Ibid. VI. 3. 10, (Translation, page 178)

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Doors are furnished with "door-posts and lintel, with hollows like a mortar for the door to revolve in, with projections to revolve in those hollows, with rings on the door for the bolt to work along in, with a block of wood fixed into the edge of the door-post, and containing a cavity for the bolt to go into (called the monkey's head), with a pin to secure the bolt by, with a connecting bolt, with a key-hole, with a hole for a string with which the door may be closed, and with a string for that purpose."⁶ The windows are stated to be of three kinds according as they are made with railings, lattices, and slips of wood.¹ The shutters are adjustable and can be closed or opened whenever required.² Five kinds of roofing are mentioned—brick-roofing, stone-roofing, cement-roofing, straw-roofing, and roofing of leaves.³ The roof is first covered over with skins(?) and plastered within and without; then follow whitewash, blocking, red-colouring. wreath-work and creeper-work.⁴ "The floors were of earth, not of wood, and were restored from time to time by fresh clay or dry cowdung being laid down, and then covered with a whitewash in which sometimes black or red was mixed. From the parallel passage in *Mahāvagga* (I. 25. 15) and *Chullavagga* (VIII. 3. 1), it would seem that the red colouring was used rather for walls, and the black one for floors."⁵ It appears, however, that with a view to removing the dampness gravel was spread over the floor.⁶

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⁶ Ibid. VI. 3. 8. also 2. 1 and 17 1, (Translation, pages 177, 161, 213). Compare the distinction between **कवाट** (door proper) and **द्वार** (doorway or gateway) (Translation, page 160, note 3). The keys are stated to be of three kinds, as they are made of bronze, hard wood or horn (VI. 2 1; Translation, page 162).

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¹ *Chullavagga* VI. 2 2, वेदिका वातपानं which according to Buddhaghosha means चेतिये वेदिकासदिसं, of which वेदिका has been explained by Rhys Davids in his note on *Mahā-Sudassana Sutta*, 1. 60, (see R D's. *Buddhist Suttas*, page 262) जालवातपानं नाम जालकबद्धं, cf which जाल literally means 'net' but corresponds to lattice. R D. advises to compare Anglo-Indian 'jalousie' (page 162). सालक वातपानं नाम थम्भक वातपानं which "possibly means with slips of wood arranged horizontally as in our Venetian blinds" (page 163). In spite of all these the learned Orientalists, Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, would say that "There were, of course, no windows in our modern sense, but only spaces left in the wall to admit light and air, and covered by lattices of three kinds" (note on Ibid. VIII 2. 2, Translation, page 279).

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² *Mahāvagga*, 1. 25 18, (Translation, page 160); *Chullavagga*, VIII. 2. 2, (Translation, page 279)

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³ *Chullavagga*, VI. 3. 10, (Translation, page 179). Compare also VI. 3. 8. 3. 3, etc.

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⁴ Ibid. V. 11. 6, (Translation, page 97); the rendering of the term 'ogumpheti' which also occurs in *Mahāvagga*, V. 11, by 'skins' seems doubtful and unsuitable. Buddhaghosa in his note at the latter place says अगुम्फियत्त‍ोति भित्ति-दण्डादिसु वेठेत्वा बन्धाति।

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⁵ Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, note on *Chullavagga*, VI. 20. 2. (Translation, page 218).

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⁶ Compare *Chullavagga*, V. 14. 5

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There were stairs of three kinds, namely, brick stairs, stone stairs, and wooden stairs. And they were furnished with *ālambana-bāhu* or balustrades.⁷ A more detailed description of flights of stairs (*sopāna*) is given in the *Mahā-Sudassana Sutta*: "Each of these had a *thambhā*, evidently posts or banisters; *sūchiyo*, apparently cross-bars, let into these banisters; and *uṇhīsaṁ*, either a lead-line running along the top of the banisters, or a figure-head at the lower end of such a head-line."⁸

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⁷ *Chullavagga*, V. 11. 6, (Translation, page 96).

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⁸ *Mahā Sudassana Sutta*, 1. 59 See also R. Davids '*Buddhist Suttas*', page 262, and compare *Chullavagga*, VI. 3. 3.

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Thus it is clear that very minute details also are mentioned in this literature. The subject, therefore, seems to have been treated in a more than casual manner.

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"The entrance to the great houses was through a large gateway. To the right and left of the passage-way were the treasury and grain stores. The gateway led into an inner courtyard round, which were chambers on the ground-floor. And above these chambers was a flat roof called the *upari-prāsāda tala*, the upper flat surface of the house, where the owner sat, usually under a pavilion, which answered the purpose at once of a drawing-room, an office, and a dining-hall."

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"In the King's palace there was accommodation also for all the business of the state, and for the numerous retinue and the extensive harem . . . . . The supplementary buildings included three institutions which are strange to us, and of considerable historical interest."

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"We are told several times of a building of seven storeys in height."¹ Professor Rhys Davids seems to be of the opinion that these buildings must have some connection with the seven-storeyed Ziggarats of Chaldæa. "But in India the use to which such seven-storeyed palaces were put was entirely private, and had nothing to do with any worship of the stars." Still he would add that "in this case also the Indians were borrowers of an idea."

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¹ *Satta-bhumika-pāsāda*, *Jataka*, 1. 227, 346; 5 52, 426; 6. 577. R. Davids refers to a building "still standing at Pulasti-pura in Ceylon and the thousand stone pillars on which another was erected at Anurādhāpura," (*Buddhist India*, page 70).

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"Another sort of building historically interesting were the hot-air baths, described in full in *Vinaya* texts.² They were built on an elevated basement faced with brick or stone, with stone stairs leading up to it, and a railing round the verandah. The roof and walls were of wood, covered first with skins, and then with plaster; the lower part only of the wall being faced with bricks. There was an ante-chamber, and a hot-room, and a pool to bathe in. Seats were arranged round a fire-place in the middle of the hot room; and to induce perspiration hot water was poured over the bathers . . . . . "

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² III. 105-110, 297. "After the bath there was shampooing, and then a plunge into the pool." "It is very curious to find," observes Rhys Davids "at this very early date in the Ganges valley a sort of bathing so closely resembling our modern "so-called 'Turkish bath'. "Did the Turks", he asks, "derive this custom from India?" (Ibid, page 74).

v2.c13.s1.48

In the *Dīgha Nikāya*³ there is a description of "another sort of bath, an open-air bathing tank, with flights of steps leading to it, faced entirely with stone, and ornamented both with flowers and carvings."

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³ *Buddhist Suttas*, translated by R Davids, (page 262 foll.), who refers to "several ancient baths still to be seen at Anurādhāpura in a fair state of preservation in spite of the more than two thousand years that have elapsed since they were first constructed." (Ibid. page 76).

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The Dāgabas or topes were another class of monuments erected in the cemeteries.¹ They were pre-Buddhistic in origin² but became very prominent after Buddha. The priestly records, however, ignore these topes, because they were erected “more especially by those who had thrown off their allegiance to the priests, and were desirous to honour the memory of their teachers, who were leaders of thought, or reformers, or philosophers.”

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¹ *Vinaya* texts, 4. 308.

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² Cf. *White Yajurveda*, chap. 35, and the writer's *Dictionary*.

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“The first step was probably merely to build the cairn more carefully than usual with stones and to cover the outside with fine *chunam* plaster to give a marble-like surface. The next step was to build the cairn of concentric layers of the huge bricks in use at the time, and to surround the whole with a wooden railing.”

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“Even in the Buddha’s time the size of these monuments had already reached very considerable dimensions. The solid dome erected by the Sākiyas over their share of the ashes from the Buddha’s funeral pyre must have been about the same height as the dome of the St. Paul’s measured from the roof.”³

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³ R. Davids, page 83-4. References to a large number of topes will be found in the writer's *Dictionary* under *stūpa*. Buddhaghosha's enumeration of the parts of a palace also shows the popularity of the subject of architecture in Buddhist literature. “Ayam phasso nāma yathā pāsādam patvā thambho nāma, sesadabhasambhārānum balavapaccayo tulā saṁghāṭā bhitti pādakuṭa-gopānasipakkhapāsamukhavaṭṭiyo thambhe baddhā thambhe patiṭṭhitā evam eva sahajātasampa-yuttadhamānam balavapaccayo hoti” (*Atthasālinī*, para 286, page 107, ed. Müller).

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From the books referring to the earlier Buddhist period stone seems to have been used only for pillars, walls and stair cases. A palace of stone is once mentioned in a fairy land⁴. According to Rhys Davids, “the superstructure at least, of all dwellings was either of wood-work or brick-work. In either case it was often covered, both internally and externally, with fine chunam plaster-works, and brilliantly painted in fresco, with figures or patterns, four of which have been preserved, namely, wreath-work, creeper-work, fine-ribbon-work and dragon’s-tooth-work.⁵ When the figures predominated the result is often called a picture-gallery (*chittāgāra*).”⁶

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⁴ *Jat*, 6.269.

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⁵ *Vinaya* texts, Translation, 2. 67; 4. 47.

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⁶ R. Davids, page 68.

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The articles of furniture, which form an important part of the architectural subjects, are also elaborately described in the Buddhist literature. Benches were made long enough to accommodate three persons⁷. The bedstead (*pallaṅka*) or divan was a separate piece of furniture.¹ Large couches (*āsandi*) or chairs seem to have been important articles of furniture.² Couches covered with canopies are also mentioned.³ Mention is made of a large variety of chairs, namely, rectangular chair (*āsandako*), arm chair, sofa (*sattango*), sofa with arms to it, state chair (*bhaddu-pīṭhaṃ*), cushioned chair (*pīṭhikā*), chair raised on a pedestal *elaka-padaka-pīṭhaṃ*), chair with many legs (*āmalaka-vaṇṭika-pīṭhaṃ*), leaning board (*phalakam*), cane-bottomed chair (*kochchham*) and s raw-bottomed chair⁴. Mention is also made of the litter or sedan-chair.⁵

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⁷ *Chullavagga*, VI. 13. 2, (Translation, page 208).

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¹ Chullavagga, VI. 14.1; VI. 8.1, etc., (Translation, page 209, 197); Mahāvagga, V. 10 3, (Translation, page 27).

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² Ibid. VI. 14.1, VI. 8. 1. etc., (Translation, page 209, 197); Mahāvagga, V. 10.3, (Translation, page 27). Rhys Davids and Oldenberg render *āsandi* twice by cushions and once by couches, and Childers by 'chairs' (see his Dictionary). It seems to imply Sanskrit *āsana* which means 'a seat.'

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³ *Mahāvagga*, V. 10.3; (Translation, page 27).

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⁴ *Chullavagga*, VI. 2 4; (Translation, page 165). Renderings are mostly those made by Rhys Davids and Oldenberg depending on Buddhaghosha's note. Compare also *Chullavagga*, VI. 20.2 and VIII. 1.3. Apassena-phalakam as a "board to lean up against" is also mentioned in *Mahāvagga*, 1. 25, 15, 16. For arm-chair and sofa there seems to be another expression '*apasayam*,' see Buddhaghosha's note on *Chullavagga*, VI. 2. 4.

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⁵ *Mahāvagga*, V. 10 2, (Translation, page 27).

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Valuable carpets, rugs, pillows, curtains, and such other luxurious decorations also are elaborately described. Thus mention is made of "coverlets with long fleece, counterpanes of many colours, woollen coverlets white or marked with thick flowers, mattresses, cotton coverlets dyed with figures of animals, rugs with long hair on one or both sides, carpets inwrought with gold or with silk, large woollen carpets such as the nautch (dancing) girls dance upon, rich elephant housings, horse rugs or carriage rugs, panther or antelope skins, large cushions and crimson cushions."⁶ Pillows are of various kinds; they are stated to be of both "the size of a man's head" and half "the size of a man's body." The Buddha allows the Bhikkhus "to comb out the cotton, and make the cotton up into pillows if it be of any of these three kinds, cotton produced on trees, cotton produced on creepers, and cotton produced from *potaki-grass*."⁷ The bolsters made for the use of high officials were of five kinds as they were stuffed with wool, cotton cloth, bark, grass or leaves. There were also coverlets for them.⁸ The smaller articles like the floor cloth, mosquito curtain, handkerchief and spittoon did not escape the notice of the then house-decorators.⁹

Linked texts (17)

Mahāvagga — Pāli
Cullavagga — Pāli
Dīghanikāya — Pāli
Jātaka — Pāli
Vinayapiṭaka — Pāli
Abhidhānappadīpikā — Moggallāna (lexicographer), Pāli
Kauśāmbī
Śrāvastī
Vaiśālī
Rājagṛha
Sāñcī
Ujjayinī
Bharhut
Anurādhapura
Ayodhyā (Sāketa)
Ajanta
Sagala