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Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v6.c40.s9: Buddhist Architecture

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v6.c40.s9

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English

Buddhist Architecture

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‘IN THE BUDDHA’s time and in that portion of Northern India where the Buddhist influence was most early felt—that is to say, in the districts including and adjoining those now called the United Provinces and Bihar,’ the arrangements of villages were practically similar. ‘We nowhere hear of isolated houses. The houses were all together, in a group, separated only by narrow lanes. Immediately adjoining was the sacred grove of trees of the primeval forest. . . . Beyond this was the wide expanse of cultivated field, usually rice-field.’ Villagers are described as ‘uniting of their own accord to build mote hills and rest-houses and reservoirs, to mend the roads between their own and adjacent villages, and even to lay out parks.’¹

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¹ *Buddhist India*, Rhys Davids, pp. 42, 45, 49: compare *Jātaka*, I, 199.

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The exact details of town-planning are not available. But ‘we are told of lofty walls, ramparts with buttresses and watch-towers and great gates; the whole surrounded by a moat or even a double moat, one of water and one of mud. But we are nowhere told of the length of the fortifications or of the extent of the space they enclosed. It would seem that we have to think not so much of a large walled city as of a fort surrounded by a number of suburbs. . . . From the frequent mention of the windows of the great houses opening directly on to the streets or squares it would appear that it was not the custom to have them surrounded by any private grounds. There were, however, no doubt, enclosed spaces behind the fronts of the houses, which latter abutted on the streets.’²

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² *Ibid*, pp. 64-65. Compare the hill fortress, Girivraja, four and a half miles in circumference, is said to have been built by Mahā-Govinda, the architect. Bimbisāra is stated to have built *Rājagriha*, king’s house, which was three miles in circumference. ‘The stone walls of Girivraja are the oldest extant stone buildings in India.’ Mention is also made of Ayojjhā, Bārāṇasī, Kampilla, Kosāmbī, Mathurā, Mithilā, Sāgala, Sāketa, Sāvatthi, Ujjeni, Vesāli and other cities, of which, however, few architectural details are given (*Vimāna-Vatthu*, commentary, p. 82). Compare *Dīggha-Nikāya*, XIX, 36: दन्तपुरं कालिङ्गानमस्सकानाञ्च पोतनम् । माहिस्सती अवन्तीनम् सोवीरानञ्च रोरुकम् ॥ मिथिला च विदेहानम् चम्पा अङ्गेसु मापिता । वाराणसी च कासीनम् एते गोविन्द मापितेति ॥ *See* Rhys Davids, *ibid*, p. 38.

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ŚYENA-CHIT (FALCON-SHAPED VEDIC ALTAR)

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PAKSHĀGRIĀM PAKSHA-MADHYĀ PAKSHESHTAKĀH PĀDESHTAKĀH SHORASHĪ FIRST LAYER

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[Figure: ŚYENA-CHIT (FALCON-SHAPED VEDIC ALTAR)

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SECOND LAYER]

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THIRD LAYER

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FOURTH LAYER

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[Figure: SYENA-CHIT (FALCON-SHAPED VEDIC ALTAR)

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FIFTH LAYER]

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But detached references to individual buildings, as distinct from villages and towns, are found in abundance in the canonical texts, as well as the *Jātakas*. At places it appears as if Buddha were delivering discourses on architecture. As a matter of fact he enjoined upon his devotees the supervision of building construction as one of the duties of the order.¹ It is stated in one of the early texts that the Bhikkhus were told on a certain occasion by the Blessed One, after the delivery of a religious discourse, with respect to dwellings, thus: ‘I allow you, O Bhikkhus, abodes of five kinds *Vihāra*, *Arddhayoga*, *Prāsāda*, *Harmya*, and *Guhā*.’²

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¹ *Chullavagga*, VI, 17, 1 (Translation, pp. 212-216).

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² *Vinaya text*, *Mahāvagga*, I, 30, 4, pp. 173-174; *Chullavogga*, VI, 1, 2, p. 158.

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Buildings are thus divided into five classes. But the details of the distinguishing features are not methodically given in the texts obviously because these are not architectural treatises.³

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³ The commentator Buddhaghosha has, however, submitted an explanatory note. *Vihāra* is the well-known Buddhist monastery. *Arddhayoga*, which literally means ‘half-joining,’ is stated by this commentator to imply *Suvaṇṇa-vanga-griha* or ‘gold-coloured bungalow’ as rendered by Oldenburg and Rhys Davids. P.T.S. *Encyclopaedia* does not accept this interpretation. Dr. B. C. Law (*Indian Culture*, April 1935, p. 717) would interpret it as *Garuḍa* (bird)-shaped house, but gives no authority. There appear, however, no such houses in Bengal, nor is this class of buildings mentioned in the *Śilpa-śāstras*. It is clear, however, that these are meant to imply some sort of luxurious buildings of the then Bengal. Regarding *prāsāda*, Buddhaghosha simply says that it is a long *prāsāda*. Rhys Davids has made several conjectures—‘a long-storeyed mansion, or the whole of an upper storey, or the storeyed buildings.’ Sir M. M. Williams seems to explain this by ‘the monks’ hall for assembly and confession.’ *Harmya* is stated to be a *prāsāda* with an upper chamber placed on the topmost storey. The references to the uses of *prāsāda* and *harmya* as found in the *Śilpa-śāstras*, general Sanskrit literature, and the archaeological records will be found in the writer’s *Encyclopaedia* under those terms. *Guhā* literally means cave and would seem to refer to underground buildings. One of the *Jātakas* (*Ummagga*, p. 430) actually contains an elaborate description of an underground palace, and there are the rock-cut temples as in the famous Ajanta caves. According to Buddhaghosha these *guhā* buildings are of four kinds, namely, those built of bricks, stone, wood, or earth. Rhys Davids has rendered *śilāguhā* by hut made in a rock, and left out the translation of *paṁsu* (Sanskrit *pāṁśu*, meaning sand, dust, or crumbling soil) *guhā*. Buddhaghosha has thus explained the *pañcha-lenāni* under *Mahāvagga* I, 30, 4:

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‘अड्ढयोगो’ ति सुवण्णवङ्गगेहम् । पासादो’ ति दीघपासादो । हम्मियान् ति उपरि आकांसतले पतिट्ठितकुटागारो पासादो येव । गुहा’ ति इट्टकगुहा सिलागुहा दारुगुहा पंसुगुहा ।

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Compare also, Oldenburg and Rhys Davids, *Vinaya Texts*, Translation, *Mahāvagga*, p. 173, note, also *Chullavagga*, p. 158, note 2.

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ARDHA-YOGA.

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BUDDHIST BUNGALOW.

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SCALE OF 10 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 FEET FOR ELEVATION ETC. SCALE OF 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 FEET FOR PLAN. NOTE The plan is mainly based on the description given in Vinaya and other Pali-texts. ELEVATION LONG SECTION. PLAN

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[Figure: 166 ELEVATION. SCALE OF 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 FEET. PLAN. BHARHUT STUPA.]

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*Vihāras* are the well-known monasteries or temples of the Buddhists, originally implying halls where the monks met. *Arddhayogas* seem to be a special kind of Bengal building, partly religious and partly residential. *Prāsādas* are wholly residential storeyed buildings; *Harmyas* are a larger and more pompous type of storeyed buildings. *Guhās* seem to be less dignified buildings, originally built underground for middle class people.

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The various objects of Buddhist art, of which archaeological remains have been scrutinized by modern architects and historians of Fergusson's name and authority, are also classified into the five following groups, though, of course, it is at times impossible to separate them entirely from one another, and sometimes two or more of them must be taken together as parts of one monument.

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The *stambhas*, or *lats*, are 'common to all the styles of Indian architecture. With the Buddhists they were employed to bear inscriptions on their shafts, with emblems or animals on their capitals. With the Jains they were generally *dīpadānas*, or lamp-bearing pillars, but sometimes supporting quadruple figures of a *Jina*. With the *Vaishṇavas* they generally bore statues of Garuḍa or Hanumān. With the *Śaivas* they bore the *Trisūla* symbol, or were *dīpadānas* and flag-staffs. But, whatever their destination they were always among the most original, and frequently the most elegant, productions of Indian art.'¹

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¹ The archaeological remains are scanty: Asoka pillar at Allahabad (Fergusson, Vol. II, no. 4, p. 57). Capital only at Sankisa (*ibid*, 58). Capital only at Tirhut (*ibid*, 58). Capital only at Karle, Bhaja, Bedsa (*ibid*, 60).

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The *stūpas*, or *topes*, again, were 'primarily relic-shrines, but may be divided into two classes, according to their destination: first, *stūpas* proper, or monuments containing relics of Buddha or of some Buddhist saint²; secondly, the *stūpas*, or towers, erected to commemorate some event or mark, some sacred spot dear to the followers of the Buddha. If it were possible, these two ought to be kept separate, but no external signs have yet been discovered by which they can be distinguished from one another, and till this is so, they must be considered, architecturally at least, as one.'¹

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² The Jains in very early times had *stūpas* and worshipped at them. Even still the *Samosaranas* in some of their temples at Satrunjaya, Girnar, Abu, etc., are survivals of the earlier *stūpas*. They were also known as *Chaityas*—as *stūpas* are still called in Nepal and Tibet.—Bühler, *Legend of the Jaina Stūpa at Mathurā*, *Epigraphia Indica*, Vol. II, Plates at pp. 314-321; *Actes du Vienna Congres Int. Orient*, Vol. III, part ii, plate at p. 142, and *infra*, part iii, p. 130.

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¹ *Dagaba* is a Singales word applied to a *stūpa*, from the Sanskrit *dhātu*, 'relic,' 'element,' and *garbha* (in Pali *gabbho*), a 'womb,' 'receptacle' or 'shrine.' *Dhātugarbha* is thus the relic-receptacle or inner shrine, and is strictly applicable only to the dome of the *stūpa*, sometimes called the *aṇḍa* or egg. *Dhātus* were not merely relics in the literal sense, but memorials in an extended acceptation, and were classified as corporeal remains; objects belonging to the teacher, as his staff, bowl, robe, holy spots, etc.; 'and any memorial, text of a sacred book, cenotaph of a teacher, etc. *Stūpas* are known as *chaityas* in Nepal, and as *dagabas* in Ceylon. The principal examples are at Bhilsa, Sarnath, Bodhagaya, Amaravati, Gandhara, Jalalabad and Manikyala.

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The rails must be recognized as 'one of the most important features of Buddhist architecture. Generally they are found surrounding *topes*, but they are also represented as enclosing sacred trees, temples, pillars, and other objects. The Buddhist rails, however, in early ages at least, is never attached to the *tope*, and is used for so many other, and such various purposes.'²

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² The principal examples are at Bharaut, Mathura, Sanchi, and Amaravati.

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The *chaitya*³ is a more general term than *stūpa*, and may be applied to 'any building of the nature of a religious monument, but more correctly to the second division of *stūpas*, or those commemorative of acts, miracles, etc., or not funerary.⁴ But it has further been restricted so as to correspond with the churches of the Christian religion; their plans, the position of the altar or relic casket, the aisles, and other peculiarities are the same in both, and their uses are identical in so far as the ritual forms of the one religion correspond to those of the other.'⁵

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³ The word *chaitya*, like *stūpa*, means primarily a heap or tumulus, but it also means a place of sacrifice or religious worship, an altar—from Sanskrit *chitā*, a heap, an assemblage, etc. Properly speaking, therefore, *chaitya* caves ought perhaps to be called 'halls containing a *chaitya*,' or '*chaitya* halls,' and this latter term is consequently used wherever any ambiguity is likely to arise from the use of the simple term *chaitya*.

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⁴ All structures of the nature of sanctuaries are *chaityas*, so that sacred trees statues, religious inscriptions and sacred places come also under this general name.

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⁵ Principal examples are at Sanchi, Ter Chezarla, Bhaja, Karle, Ajanta, Elura, etc.

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The *vihāra* with the Buddhists and Jains was a hall where the monks met and walked about; afterwards these halls came to be used as temples, and sometimes became the centres of monastic establishments. Like the *chaityas*, they resemble very closely the corresponding institutions among Christians. In the earlier ages they accompanied, [Figure: SCALE 25 FT = 1 INCH. CAVE NO. 16 AJANTA]

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VIHĀRA HALL, PLAN OF CAVE 16, AJANTA

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but were detached from, the *chaityas* or churches. In later times they were furnished with chapels in which the service could be performed independently of the *chaitya* halls which may or may not be found in their proximity.¹

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¹ Fergusson, *Indian and Eastern Architecture* (1910), Vol. I, pp. 54–55. The principal examples are at Mumallapura, Son-Bhandar, Nasik, Ajanta, Elura, Bagh, Dhamnon, Kuda, etc.

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The extensiveness of these buildings can be imagined not only from the colossal structures at Burobodur, Angkorvat, and other places, but also from the length of time devoted to getting a house completely built. Thus, it is stated that, ‘with reference to the work of a small *vihāra*, it may be given in charge (to an overseer) as a *navakamma* (new work) for a period of five or six years, that on an *aḍḍhayoga* for a period of seven or eight years, that on a large *vihāra* or a *pāsāda* for ten or twelve years.’² That the long periods were not idled away will be clear from the following details of houses gathered from the *Vinaya texts*.³

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² *Chullavagga*, VI, 17, 1 (Translation, p. 214).

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³ *Ibid*, VI, 5, etc., and *Mahāvagga*.

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‘Even in the Buddha’s time the size of these monuments had already reached very considerable dimensions. The solid dome erected by the Sākiyas over their share of the ashes from the Buddha’s funeral pyre must have been about the same height as the dome of the St. Paul’s measured from the roof.’⁴

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⁴ Rhys Davids, page 83–84. References to a large number of *topes* will be found in the writer’s *Encyclopaedia* under *Stūpa*. Buddhaghosha’s enumeration of the parts of a palace also shows the popularity of the subject of architecture in Buddhist literature. ‘Ayam phasso nāma yathā pāsādam patvā thambho nāma, sesadabhasambhārānam balavapaccayo tulā saṁghāṭā bhitti pādakuṭagopānasipakkhapāsamukhavatṭyo thambhe baddhā thambhe patiṭṭhitā evam eva sahajātasampayuttadhammānam balavapaccayo hoti.’ (*Atthasālini*, para. 286, p. 107, ed. Müller).

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The selection of building sites shows a highly developed good taste. The *ārāma* (rest-house), well fitted for quiet people, is stated to be built ‘not too far from the town and not too near, convenient for going and for coming, easily accessible for all who wish to visit him, by day not too crowded, by night not exposed to too much noise and alarm. . . .’⁵ The whole compound is enclosed with ramparts (*prākāra*) of three kinds, namely, brick walls, stone walls, and wooden fences, which are again surrounded with bamboo fences, thorn fences, and ditches.⁶

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⁵ *Chullavagga*, VI, 4, 8 (Translation, p. 187).

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⁶ *Ibid*, VI, 3, 7, 10 (Translation, pp. 176–177, 187).

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Houses were built comprising ‘dwelling-rooms and retiring-rooms, and store-rooms, and service halls, and halls with fire-places in them, and store-houses, and closets, and cloisters, and halls for exercise, and wells, and sheds for the wells, and bathrooms, and halls attached to the bathrooms, and ponds, and open-roofed sheds (*maṇḍapas*)’.¹ These buildings are meant to be dwelling-houses; so it is stated that ‘an *upāsaka* (devotee) has built for his own use a residence, a sleeping room, a stable, a tower, a one-peaked building, a shop, a *boutique*, a storeyed house, an attic, a cave, a cell, a store-room, a refectory, a fire-room, a kitchen, a privy, a place to walk in, a house to walk in, a well, a well-house, a *yanba-griha* (which is supposed by Bühler to be ‘a bathing place for hot sitting baths’), a *yantra-griha* room, a lotus pond and a pavilion.’²

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¹ *Chullavagga*, VI, 4, 10 (Translation, p. 189).

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² *Mahāvagga*, III, 5, 9 (Translation, p. 304), also III, 5, 6 (Translation, p. 303).

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The inner chambers are divided into three classes, called *śivikā-garbha* or square halls, *nālikā-garbha* or rectangular halls, and *harmya-garbha* which appears to a be large dining-hall.³ The verandahs (*ālinda*) seem to have been a special characteristic of these buildings. The Blessed One (Buddha) says, ‘I allow you, O Bhikkhus, covered terraces, inner verandahs, and over-hanging eaves.’⁴ The storeyed buildings (*prāsāda*) are stated to be furnished with ‘a verandah to it, supported on pillars’ with capitals of elephant-head.⁵

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³ About the last Buddhaghosha seems to be doubtful and says : हम्मियगब्भो ति कुटागारगब्भो मुदण्डुच्छादनगब्भो वा ; But about the other two terms he is clear : सिविकागब्भो ति चतुरस्सगब्भो ; नालिकागब्भो ति वित्थारतो द्विगुणतिगुणायामो दीघगब्भो (*Chullavagga*, VI, 3, 3). But Oldenberg and Rhys Davids seem to have been wholly misled when they translated these last two by ‘palankeen shaped and quart measure shaped,’ about the latter of which Indians of even today are quite unfamiliar.

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⁴ *Chullavagga*, VI, 3, 5 (Translation, p. 175), commented on by Buddhaghosha : आलिन्दो नाम पमुखं वुच्चति। Compare *Abhidānappadīkā*, verse 218 : पघनं नाम यं निक्खमन्ता च पविमन्ता च पादेहि हनन्ति, तस्स विहार द्वारं उभतो कुड्डं निहरित्वा कतपदेसस्स एतं अधिवचनम् पघानम् ति पि वुच्चति। पकुट्ठनतिमज्झे गब्भस्स समन्ता परियागारो वुच्चति पकुटन् ति पाठो। ओगरको ति अनालिन्दकं वंगं दत्वा ततो दण्डकं ओतारेत्वा कतं छादनपमुखं।

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⁵ *Ibid*, VI, 14, 1 (Translation, p. 208) : हत्थिनखकं supported on the frontal globes (*kumbha*) of elephants, says Buddhaghosha.

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BUDDHIST STUPA RAILS

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STUPA RAILS—DECORATED SECTION

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SECTION STUPA RAILS—SIMPLE PLAN OF BUDDHIST RAILS

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PRASADA OR ROYAL PALACE

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FROM PALI TEXTS

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[Figure: SCALE OF FEET

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Details of gates, doors, and windows are also elaborate. Gateways are built with rooms and ornamental screen-work over them.¹ And gates are made of stakes interlaced with thorny brakes.²

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¹ *Chullavagga*, VI, 4, 10 (Traslation, p. 189) ; 3, 10, तोरण of which excellent examples in stone have been found at the Sāñchī and Bharhut Topes (Translation, p. 178).

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² *Ibid*, VI, 3, 10 (Translation, p. 178).

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Doors are furnished with 'door-posts and lintel, with hollows like a mortar for the door to revolve in, with projections to revolve in those hollows, with rings on the door for the bolt to work along in, with a block of wood fixed into the edge of the door-post, and containing a cavity for the bolt to go into (called the monkey's head), with a pin to secure the bolt by, with a connecting bolt, with a key-hole, with a hole for a string with which the door may be closed, and with a string for that purpose.'³ The windows are stated to be of three kinds according as they are made with railings, lattices, and slips of wood.⁴ The shutters are adjustable and can be closed or opened whenever required.⁵ Five kinds of roofing are mentioned—brick-roofing, stone-roofing, cement-roofing, straw-roofing, and roofing of leaves.⁶ The roof is first covered over with skins and plastered within and without ; then follow whitewash, blocking, red-colouring, wreath-work and creeper-work.¹ 'The floors were of earth, not of wood, and were restored from time to time by fresh clay or dry cowdung being laid down, and then covered with a whitewash in which sometimes black or red was mixed. From the parallel passage in *Mahāvagga* (I, 25, 15) and *Chullavagga* (VIII, 3, 1), it would seem that the red colouring was used rather for walls, and the black one for floors.'² It appears, however, that with a view to removing the dampness, gravel was spread over the floor.³

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³ *Ibid*, VI, 3, 8, also 2, 1 and 17, 1 (Translation, p. 177, 161, 213). Compare the distinction between कवाट (door proper) and द्वार (doorway or gateway) (Translation, p. 160, note 3). The keys are stated to be of three kinds, as they are made of bronze, hard wood, or horn (VI, 2, 1 ; Translation, p. 162).

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⁴ *Ibid*, VI, 2, 2, वेदिका वातपान which according to Buddhaghosha means क्षतिये वेदिकासदिर्श, of which वेदिका has been explained by Rhys Davids in his note on *Mahā Sudassana Sutta*, 1, 60 (see R. D.'s *Buddhist Suttas*, p. 262). जालवातपां नाम जालकबद्धधं, of which जाल literally means 'net' but corresponds to lattice. R. D. advises to compare Anglo-Indian 'jalousie' (p. 162). सालक वातपानं नाम शम्भव वातपानं which 'possibly means with slips of wood arranged horizontally as in our Venetian blinds' (p. 163). In spite of all these, the learned Orientalists Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, would say that 'There were, of course, no windows in our modern sense, but only spaces left in the wall to admit light and air, and covered by lattices of three kinds" (note on *ibid*, VIII, 2. 2, Translation, p. 279).

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⁵ *Mahāvagga*, I, 25, 18 (Translation, p. 160) ; *Chullavagga*, VIII, 2, 2 (Translation, p. 279).

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⁶ *Chullavagga*, VI, 3, 10 (Translation, p. 179). Compare also VI, 3, 8, 3, 3, etc.

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¹ *Chullavagga*, V, 11, 6 (Translation, p. 97); the rendering of the term *āgumpheti*, which also occurs in *Mahāvagga*, V, 11, by 'skins' seems doubtful and unsuitable. Buddhaghosa in his note at the latter place says अगुम्वियन्तीति भित्ति दण्डकादिसु वेठेत्वा बन्धाति ।

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² Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, note on *Chullavagga*, VI, 20, 2 (Translation, p. 218).

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³ Compare *Chullavagga*, V, 14, 5.

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There were stairs of three kinds, namely, brick-stairs, stone-stairs, and wooden-stairs. And they were furnished with *ālambana-bāhu* or balustrades.⁴ A more detailed description of flights of stairs (*sopāna*) is given in the *Mahā-Sudasana Suttā*: 'Each of these had a *thambhā*, evidently posts or banisters; *sūchiyo*, apparently cross-bars let into these banisters; and *uṇhīsaṁ*, either a headline running along the top of the banisters, or a figure-head at the lower end of such a headline.'⁵

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⁴ *Chullavagga*, V, 11, 6 (Translation, p. 96).

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⁵ *Maha-Sudasana Sutta*, 1, 59. See also R. Davids, *Buddhist Suttas*, p. 262, and compare *Chullavagga*, VI, 3, 3.

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Thus it is clear that very minute details also are mentioned in this literature. The subject, therefore, seems to have been treated in a more than casual manner.

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'The entrance to the great houses was through a large gateway. To the right and left of the passage-way were the treasury and grain stores. The gateway led into an inner courtyard round which were chambers on the ground floor. And above these chambers was a flat roof called the *upari-prāsāda tala*, the upper flat surface of the house, where the owner sat, usually under a pavilion, which answered the purpose at once of a drawing-room, an office, and a dining hall.'

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'In the King's palace there was accommodation also for all the business of the State, and for the numerous retinue and the extensive *harem*. . . . The supplementary buildings included three institutions which are strange to us and of considerable historical interest.'

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[Figure: ELEVATION

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BUDDHIST BATH-TURKISH MODEL.

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SCALE OF 10 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 FEET.

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SECTION]

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BUDDHIST BATH, GENERALLY KNOWN AS TURKISH BATH

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PALLAVA ARCHITECTURE, KAILĀSANĀTH TEMPLE AT ELLORA

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'We are told several times of a building of seven storeys in height.'¹ Professor Rhys Davids seems to be of the opinion that these buildings must have some connexion with the seven-storeyed *ziggarats* of Chaldæa. 'But in India the use to which such seven-storeyed palaces were put was entirely private, and had nothing to do with any worship of the stars.' Still he would add that 'in this case also the Indians were borrowers of an idea.'

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¹ *Satta-bhumika-pāsāda*, *Jātaka*, 1, 227, 346; 5, 52, 426; 6, 577. R. Davids refers to a building 'still standing at Pulasti-pura in Ceylon and the thousand-stone pillars on which another was erected at Anurādhapura.' (*Buddhist India*, p. 70).

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'Another sort of building historically interesting were the hot-air baths, described in full in *Vinaya texts*.² They were built on an elevated basement faced with brick or stone, with stone-stairs leading up to it, and a railing round the verandah. The roof and walls were of wood, covered first with skins, and then with plaster; the lower part only of the wall being faced with bricks. There was an ante-chamber, and a hot-room, and a pool to bathe in. Seats were arranged round a fire-place in the middle of the hot-room; and to induce perspiration hot water was poured over the bathers. . . .'

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² III, 105-110, 297. 'After the bath there was shampooing, and then a plunge into the pool.' 'It is very curious to find,' observes Rhys Davids, 'at this very early date in the Ganges valley a sort of bathing so closely resembling our modern' so-called 'Turkish bath.' 'Did the Turks,' he asks, 'derive this custom from India?' (*Ibid*, p. 74.)

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In the *Dīgha Nikāya*³ there is a description of 'another sort of bath, an open-air bathing tank, with flights of steps leading to it, faced entirely with stone, and ornamented both with flowers and carvings.'

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³ *Buddhist Suttas*, translated by R. Davids (p. 262 foll.), who refers to 'several ancient baths still to be seen at Anuradhapura in a fair state of preservation in spite of the more than two thousand years that have elapsed since they were first constructed.' (*Ibid*, p. 76.) These baths may well be compared with those discovered at Mahenjo-daro.

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'The first step was probably merely to build the cairn more carefully than usual with stones and to cover the outside with fine chunam plaster to give a marble-like surface. The next step was to build the cairn of concentric layers of the huge bricks in use at the time, and to surround the whole with a wooden railing.'

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The articles of furniture, which form an important part of the architectural subjects, are also elaborately described in the Buddhist literature. Benches were made long enough to accommodate three persons.⁴ The bedstead (*pallaṅka*), or divan, was a separate piece or furniture.¹ Large couches (*āsandi*), or chairs, seem to have been important articles of furniture.² Couches covered with canopies are also mentioned.³ Mention is made of a large variety of chairs, namely, rectangular chair (*āsandako*), arm-chair, sofa (*sattaṅgo*), sofa with arms to it, state chair (*bhadda-pīṭhaṃ*), cushioned chair (*pīṭhikā*), chair raised on a pedestal (*elaka-padaka-pīṭhaṃ*), chair with many legs (*āmalakavaṇṭika-pīṭhaṃ*), leaning board (*phalakaṃ*), cane-bottomed chair (*kochchhaṃ*) and straw-bottomed chair.⁴ Mention is also made of the litter or sedan-chair.⁵

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⁴ *Chullavagga*, VI, 13, 2 (Translation, p. 208).

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¹ *Chullavagga*, VI, 14, 1; VI, 8, 1, etc. (Translation, pp. 209, 197); *Mahāvagga*, V, 10, 3 (Translation, p. 27).

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² *Ibid*, VI, 14, 1; VI, 8, 1, etc. (Translation, pp. 209, 197); *Mahāvagga*, V, 10, 3 (Translation, p. 27). Rhys Davids and Oldenberg under *āsandi*, twice by cushions and once by couches, and Childers by ‘chairs’ (*see* his Dictionary). It seems to imply Sanskrit *āsana*, which means ‘a seat.’

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³ *Mahāvagga*, V, 10, 3 (Translation, p. 27).

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⁴ *Chullavagga*, VI, 2, 4 (Translation, p. 165). Renderings are mostly those made by Rhys Davids and Oldenberg depending on Buddhaghosha’s note. Compare also *Chullavagga*, VI, 20, 2 and VIII, 1, 3. *Apassena-phalakam* as a ‘board to lean up against’ is also mentioned in *Mahāvagga*, I, 25, 15, 16. For arm-chair and sofa there seems to be another expression, *apasayam*, *see* Buddhaghosha’s note on *Chullavagga*, VI, 2, 4.

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⁵ *Mahāvagga*, V, 10, 2 (Translation, p. 27).

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Valuable carpets, rugs, pillows, curtains, and such other luxurious decorations also are elaborately described. Thus mention is made of ‘coverlets with long fleece, counterpanes of many colours, woollen coverlets white or marked with thick flowers, mattresses, cotton coverlets dyed with figures of animals, rugs with long hair on one or both sides, carpets inwrought with gold or with silk, large woollen carpets such as the nautch (dancing) girls dance upon, rich elephant housings, horse rugs or carriage rugs, panther or antelope skins, large cushions and crimson cushions.’⁶ Pillows are of various kinds; they are stated to be of both ‘the size of a man’s head’ and half ‘the size of a man’s body.’ The Buddha allows the Bhikkhus ‘to comb out the cotton, and make the cotton up into pillows if it be of any of these three kinds, cotton produced on trees, cotton produced on creepers, and cotton produced from *potaki* grass.’⁷ The bolsters made for the use of high officials were of five kinds, as they were stuffed with wool, cotton cloth, bark, grass, or leaves. There were also coverlets for them.¹ The smaller articles like the floor cloth, mosquito curtain, handkerchief and spittoon did not escape the notice of the then housedecorators.'²

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⁶ *Ibid*, V, 10, 3 (Translation, p. 27).

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⁷ *Chullavagga*, VI, 2, 6 (Translation, p. 167); *see* also IV, 4, 4, and VIII, 1, 3.

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¹ *Chullavagga*, VI, 2, 7 (Translation, p. 168).

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² *Ibid.*, VI, 20. 1 (Translation, p. 219); V, 14, 1 (Translation, p. 102); *Mahāvagga*, VIII, 18 (Translation, p. 227); for *cholaka*, or handkerchief, see also *Chullavagga*, VI, 19 and V, 9, 4.

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'It is almost impossible to over-rate the importance of architecture and its associated arts in elucidating and giving precision to our knowledge of Buddhist history and mythology, from the time when it became the religion of the State till it perished in so far as India was concerned.'

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'In the rails at Bodhgaya and Bharaut, we have a complete picture of Buddhism as it existed during the great Maurya dynasty (320 to 180 B.C.). At Sanchi and western caves we have as complete a representation of the form it took from the second century before our (Christian) era to the third after it. At Amarāvati, and from the Gandhāra monasteries, we learn what modifications had been introduced between our era and the third century; and from the Ajanta and later caves we trace its history downwards through its period of decay till it faded away altogether.'

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'During the first of this thousand years we have no contemporary records except those written in stone, and during the latter we have no books we can depend upon; but the architecture, with its sculptures and paintings, remain, and bear an indelible impress of the thoughts, the feelings, and the aspirations of those who executed them, and supply us with a vast amount of exact knowledge on the subject which is not attainable by any other means now known to us.'³

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³ Fergusson, *Indian and Eastern Architecture*, Vol. I (1910), pp. 249-250.

Linked texts (34)