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Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v6.c41.s16: Champa

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v6.c41.s16

Language
English

Contents

Champa

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Champa is the eastern portion of the Indo-Chinese peninsula in continuation of Burma, comprising Siam, Laos, Annam, Cambodia, and Cochin-China. It corresponds with Annam. It is bounded by the Sea of China on the east, and on the west there is a range of hills along the valley of Me-kong river, on the south is French Cochin-China, and on the north lie the parts of the sea, Laos, and Siam. It is about 160 miles from east to west up to the Me-kong.

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The original inhabitants, who were conquered by the Indians, probably in the second century A.D., belonged to the Austronesian race.

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The earliest mention of Champā-deśa is in that passage of the *Rāmāyaṇa* where it is stated that king Sugrīva sent out emissaries in search of Sītā, stolen by Rāvaṇa. The king Asoka’s messengers also may have visited the country of Champa. According to the Arakanese traditions, the first king of Champa was the son of a king of Benares, who settled at Rāmāvatī, the present Rāmbyi or Ramri.² According to another tradition, the first Indian kings of Champa were known as the Kauṇḍinya of the lunar race.

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² Phayre, *History of Burma*, p. 7, quoted by Dr. R. C. Majumdar, *Ancient Colonies in the Far East*, Vol. I, ‘Champa,’ ‘Introduction,’ p. xviii.

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Mainly on the basis of the Vo-chanh inscription in Sanskrit of the second or third century of the Christian era, it is clear that Champa had already been under a ‘Hindu or Hinduized dynasty.’ Dr. R. C. Majumdar takes Śrī Māra as the first historical Hindu king of Champa In support of this, Majumdar refers to Ptolemy’s list of Sanskrit names in Indo-China, the mention of the Chams or Annamese in history in the second century A.D., and also the Chinese reference to the foundation of the kingdom of Champa in 192 A.D. by Lien of the family of Kiu.¹

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¹ Majumdar: ‘Champa,’ Introduction, pp. xx–xxiv.

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Mainly on the basis of inscriptions and Chinese records, Majumdar has drawn up the lists of kings of the Hindu dynasties that ruled in Champa, beginning with Śrī-Māra, from the second century A.D. to A.D. 1180.²

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² *Dynasty of Sri Mara of Sixteen Kings from 250–529.* *Dynasty of Gangaraja of Fourteen Kings from 500–757.* *Dynasty of Panduranga of Five Kings from 758–860.* *Dynasty of Bhrigu of Seven Kings from 861–972.* *Dynasty of Some Varman of Nine Kings from 972–1044.* *Dynasty of Some Varman of Three Kings from 1050–1069.* *Dynasty of Some Varman of Four Kings from 1070–1126.* *Dynasty of Some Varman of Five Kings from 1139–1180.* —‘Champa’, Chap. III–X, pp. 19–105.

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So far as the architectural remains of Champa are concerned, they can hardly put up any claim to a comparison with those of Cambodia or Java in respect of purely technical design or artistic decorations. But the temples of Champa appear to have been erected earlier than those of Angkor Vāt and Boro-Budur.

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The Cham temples have been found in groups at Myson, Dong Duong, Po-Nagar, and Pho Hai areas, and individually at Binh Lam, Khuong My, and Bang An.

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M. Parmentier has made a technical classification of all these monuments under five headings.³ What he calls the ‘primitive art’ is represented by the Myson and the Po Nagar temples of the seventh and the first quarter of the ninth centuries respectively. The ‘cubic art,’ deriving its name from the cube-shaped roof of the temples, is represented by the Myson temples of the eighth century, Po Nagar temple of the late ninth century, and the Dong Duong temple of the same period. The ‘mixed art,’ deriving its title from a combination of ‘primitive’ proportions and ‘cubic’ roof, is represented by the Dong Duong temple of the late ninth century.

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³ M. H. Parmentier, *Inventaire Descriptif des Monuments Chams de L'Annam*, Vol. II, pp. 19 *et. seq.* quoted by Majumdar, ‘Champa,’ Chap. X, p. 258.

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CHAM PILLAR, ELABORATELY CARVED

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Square Cham Pillar The ‘classic art’ is so called because of the architectural formula followed in the representation of the Myson temple of mid-eleventh century. The ‘pyramidal art’ dervies its title from its pyramidal form, as represented by the Bang An temple of the earliest tenth century, Po Nagar temple of the late twelfth century, and the Yan Pron temple of the fourteenth century. Lastly, what is called the ‘derived art,’ has departed from the recognized canons of the classical art and is represented by the Myson temples of the twelfth century, the Po Khaun Garai of the fourteenth century, and Po Rome of the mid-seventeenth century.

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The Myson temples are situated in a valley, measuring about a mile in extent, south-east of Touranne. They are built in the valley proper, as also upon the low peaks of the neighbouring hills. They may be divided into some ten groups. The first group consists of the main shrine and three subsidiary temples on each side, of the same form but smaller in size, all built on one terrace in a quadrangular courtyard, surrounded by brick walls. They are cruciform (*svastika*) in plan and consist of several stages or storeys. ‘In the first stage of the pyramidal roof, each side contains three pilasters. The second and third stages are repetitions of the first, though on a smaller scale.’ The second group, within a square wall, contains the principal temple in the centre of the enclosure. ‘A hall with double doors gives access to the court from the east. Two subsidiary temples occupy respectively the south-eastern and north-eastern angle. There are two other temples within the enclosure, in the south-west angle and in front of it. There are besides, seven miniature temples attached to the enclosing wall.’ One of these temples ‘has only two storeys and the roof of the upper one is ridge-shaped, with ogival ends.’ There is a colonnade in front of the main shrine. The octagonal shaft of each column ‘is fluted and ornamented at both ends. The base and capital are both executed with rare perfection. The abacus is decorated with the busts of four figures brandishing swords of a peculiar kind. The topmost member is a beautiful lotus.’

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The third group is also enclosed with a wall. It consists of the main shrine, five other edifices, three temples, two subsidiary temples, all of the same orientation, and one gate tower. The main shrine is separated by an open space into the sanctuary and the vestibule. ‘Internally the arched vault is not of a regular pyramidal character, but rises straight to a certain distance.’

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The fourth group is ‘enclosed by a continuous wall which forms a circuit round the northern, southern, and western walls.’ There are two principal temples separated by a common court, two other subsidiary temples, two minor buildings, and another temple within the same enclosure. The fifth group is also enclosed by a wall, with a gateway in the middle of the southern wall. The main shrine had a tiled roof. Its ‘inner chamber is square in plan, and has four wooden columns at the four angles. It opens by a doorway to the west, and has in the centre a richly sculptured pedestal carrying an enormous *liṅga*’ (phallus of Śiva). There are three subsidiary temples, two edifices, and remains of several other buildings. In this group only one temple faces the east, the others having their façade towards the west.

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The sixth group is also similar in plan, being enclosed by a wall with a single gateway. Here there is only one subsidiary temple, to the south of the main shrine in the centre of the enclosure.

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The seventh group is similarly enclosed with a single gateway. In front of the main shrine, facing west, there is the usual hall (*mukha-maṇḍapa*). There is no subsidiary temple within the enclosure, but there appears to have been a residential chamber. Outside the enclosure, to the north-east, there is a temple with four entrances on the four sides.

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The eighth group has no other building besides the main shrine, facing east, which is furnished with the usual front hall within the enclosing wall. There is also no gate-tower, which is substituted by a simple doorway.

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The ninth group is also enclosed and has a gateway, but the main shrine and other temples have all disappeared.

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The tenth group, at the middle height of a small peak overlooking the second, third, and fourth groups, ‘consists merely of a long chamber.’ It has two doorways at the two ends.¹

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¹ For further details, *vide* Majumdar, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, pp. 240–248; Parmentier, *loc. cit.* Plates LXVII—XCVII.

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The deities installed in the Myson temples include, besides the phallus of Śiva, Gaṇeśa, Skanda, Brahmā, Sūrya, Indra, and other gods and goddesses.

Dong Duong Group

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The general plan of the Dong Duong temples appears to illustrate the design described in the *Mānasāra* and other *Śilpa-śāstras*. The whole compound is divided into four main courts. The outermost court, like all the rest, had an entrance porch on the east, preceded by two columns. Buildings in all the courts are mostly in ruins. In the third court there is a single hall with two side entrances. The second court contains a long chamber. In the first, or innermost court, is situated the main shrine of cross shape (i.e. *svastika* in plan) surrounded by four sanctuaries. There is, in front, an imposing building (*mukha-maṇḍapa*) with four bays. There are also two other temples and two residential blocks. The whole court is enclosed by a wall, with a porch on the east.

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Cham Temple of Du’o’ng Long

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ANGKOR VAT

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From the inscriptions it appears that ‘ the ruins at Dong Duong are those of a Buddhist temple and monastery, built by king Jayavarman in A.D. 875,’ and that ‘ the temple was situated within the town of Indrapura, which was at that time the capital of Champa, and that the widowed queen of Indravarman, named Haradevī Rājakula, installed many gods and goddesses within the temple area. The actual discovery of Buddhist images among the ruins of the temple also demonstrate the Buddhist character of the building.’¹

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¹ Majumdar, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, p. 250 ; *vide* Parmentier, Plates XCVIII, *et seq.*

Po Nagar Group

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The Po Nagar temple, otherwise known as ‘ the goddess of the city,’ is situated, facing east, on a small hillock at the entrance of a valley. ‘ It commands a good view of the lagune at the foot of the hillock and of the sea close by.’

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The temples were built within an enclosing wall in two rows from north to south, each containing three. The principal temple is in the front row. ‘ A steep staircase leads to a lower terrace containing an imposing hall with a colonnade.’ There appears to have been a gateway also.

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The superstructure of the main temple, wherein is installed a beautiful image of Umā, ‘ consists of a small member of ogival-shape, superimposed upon a bigger one of the same shape. Each of these stands upon two pilasters, between which, at the bottom, is a human figure decorated with a *mukuṭa* (crown) and with hands joined near the breast.’ ‘ The roof consists of four stages. The interior of the roof is a pyramidal vault, ending in a long chimney to which are attached, at the height of the third stage of the roof, two cross-pipes which extend over the entire summit of the building. The vestibule is a copy of the main building in all its essential features.'¹

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¹ Majumdar, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, pp. 252, 251 ; Parmentier, *loc. cit.*, Plate XXLI.

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This appears to be the best preserved and most beautiful of all temples in Champa.

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One other temple of this group has a peculiar roof, consisting of a single curvilinear pyramidal dome of elegant shape, with two bulb-shaped stones as finials looking like the phallus of Śiva.

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From inscriptions it is clear that there were several other buildings at Po Nagar. One of these has been identified as an apsidal Buddhist *chaitya*, with a central nave and two aisles.² In another inscription it is stated that 'King Satyavarma built a new temple and installed therein a new *mukha-liṅga*, together with images of other gods and goddesses.' In a third inscription of a.d. 817, Senapati Par is stated to have 'erected three temples with *maṇḍapas* (pavilions) and gates and installed gods and goddesses.'³

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² Parmentier, Plate XXI, Vol. I, p. 127, quoted by Majumdar.

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³ For further details, *vide* Majumdar, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, p. 258 : for inscriptions, Book III, pp. 41–218.

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The Po Hai temples⁴ on the top of a hillock consist of three shrines, facing east, in two different levels. The principal one is enclosed by a wall. 'The absence of corner towers brings out very prominently the resemblance of this type of temples with the storeyed *stūpas* of India, from which it seems to have been ultimately derived.'⁵

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⁴ Parmentier, *loc. cit.*, Parts I to III, pp. 29 *et seq.*

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⁵ Majumdar, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, p. 254.

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The Po Dam group consists of six temples,⁶ also situated on a hill, but face the south, and the upper storeys of one with curved roof resemble some small temple in Boro-Budur.

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⁶ Parmentier, Plates VI and VII; Majumdar, p. 255.

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The Po Rome temples consist of the principal shrine and another building.⁷

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⁷ Parmentier, Plates VIII to X; Majumdar, p. 255.

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The Po Klong Garai temple comprises six buildings, built on a peak, commanding a fine view.⁸

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⁸ Parmentier, Plates XI to XIV; Majumdar, p. 255.

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The Ho Lai temples consist of three shrines built on a plain, and the Hung Thank group of five temples at the foot of a hill.⁹

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⁹ Parmentier, Plates XV to XIX; Majumdar, p. 256 ; and Parmentier, Plates XX and XXI : Majumdar, p. 256.

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The remains of a few cave temples also have been found at several places in Champa. The Phu Duoc cave is oval in shape. ‘The inner chamber has a vaulted roof, and two cells radiate from it.’ ‘The marble mountains near Hos Que contain several caves round a central hall, which is, however, open to the sky.’ ‘The caves of Phong Nha are of massive proportions.’ This cave contains an image of Buddha and some other sculptures. There are some hundred inscriptions, one of which appears to contain the word ‘Sāriputra,’ thus indicating a Buddhistic sanctuary. The Chua Hang cave also contains a small image of Buddha. The caves near the Lac-Son village appear to have been ‘transformed into Buddhist sanctuaries by the Chams.’ In these caves there are some thirty-six inscriptions.¹

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¹ Majumdar, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, pp. 259–260; Parmentier, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, pp. 218, Fig. 41, p. 317, Fig. 69, pp. 542–548, quoted by Majumdar.

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The sculptures in connexion with the temples and caves comprise the images of both gods and goddesses, kings and queens, men and women, and animals. The actual iconographic proportions in *Tāla* or any other system are not available. But Dr. Majumdar declares that ‘the features, at least of the upper part of the body, are well proportioned and the expression of face is pleasing.’ But he comments that, ‘like the Indian art, the images of gods in later periods became more and more deformed, till they assumed sometimes a monstrous appearance.’ The figures of *dvārapālas* (doorkeepers) in temples are cited as examples.² Some of the human figures, comprising praying ones, mounted on elephants, lions, *apsaras* (nymphs), demons, etc., as also of musicians, are stated to be ‘really charming.’ The bas-reliefs on pedestals are stated to be so good as to be compared with those of Java.²

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² For further details, *vide* Majumdar ‘Champa,’ pp. 263–271; and Parmentier, *loc. cit.*, Figs. 78 to 107.

City Plan

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The description of the city of Champa is available from a Chinese text.³ It is stated to have been situated at a distance of about 6½ miles from the sea coast. ‘At the north-west angle of the ramparts of the city were high mountains and a long chain of hills. To the north of these hills flowed a river, to the south also there was another river which joined the former to the east of the city.’

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³ *Chouei King Tchou* (A.D. 527) referred to by Dr. Majumdar, *loc. cit.*, p. 19.

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‘The city was surrounded by a wall about a mile and a half in circumference. On a brick wall, about 200 feet high, was raised a second brick wall of half that height, pierced by square loop-holes. On the walls were placed wooden boards supporting many-storeyed pavilions, on the roof of which again arose towers varying in height from 40 to 70 feet. There were four gates in the walls. The main gate was on the east. It opened near two islands in the river Houai. The western gate opened on a double ditch which turned to the north and reached a hill. The southern gate, likewise, opened on a double ditch. The northern gate opened on the river Houai.’

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‘Within the walls were a small enclosure, the assembly rooms, and brick palaces. There was a palace, opening to the east, of which the loose pieces supporting the rafter looked like the tail of an owl.’ The towers are also stated to have been of an owl shape, ‘with its tail turned towards the wind and touching the mountains and the clouds, looking as if towards the water and ascending to the highest peak of the mountains.’¹ In design, the city itself, it should be noticed, may correspond to the Kheṭa plan of the *Mānasāra*, while *pechaka* (owl) has been distinctly referred to in the *Mānasāra* as a site-plan, which appears to have been carried to the towers and palaces built within the city, probably of the same plan.²

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¹ M. Auroussean, *B. E. F.*, Vol. XIV, no. 9, pp. 23-34. Dr. Majumdar, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, pp. 19-20.

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² *Vide Mānasāra*, Chap. VII ; and *see* pp. 101-102, 104 of this volume.

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There are also scanty remains of some fortified cities. The citadel of Śrī Banoy, an irregular quadrangle in shape, is situated on the right bank of the river Song Luy. This ‘shows greater knowledge in the art of fortification than any other.’ Thank Ho, about ten miles from the mouth of the river Song Da Rang, is ‘enclosed between a mountain and the left side of the river, and the open face is protected by a wall. It was also protected by reduits and towers and had several gates.’ Of the citadel of Chausa and Coy Luy very little remains to enable a description.

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Remains of ‘a first class military fortification’ have been discovered at Caban, the ancient capital town of Vijaya. ‘They cover a rectangular area of over 1,500 yards from north to south and of 1,200 yards from east to west. It was protected by an arm of the Binh Dinh river on the north, and a strong wall, without any flanking, on either sides. The wall was built of earth with revetment of limonite, and was pierced through by tunnels for the ingress and egress of a small brook. There are a number of high mounds on all sides which probably conceal some towers or gates.’¹

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¹ Majumdar, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, p. 261–262. Parmentier, *loc. cit.*, Plates IV, XXVII, XLIX, LV.

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This brief account of Champa architecture does not lack in the variety of structures. Except private dwelling-houses of simple character, all other types of buildings, namely, cities, forts, palaces, and temples have been referred to. In most cases their Indian origin is more than indicated. But there has been difference of opinion on this point, on account of the inaccessability of the *Silpa-śāstra*, like the *Mānasāra*, wherein alone one can find the basic principles of Hindu architecture. Thus M. Parmentier, who has discussed the question of the Champa art at great length and who possesses a thorough knowledge of the art and architecture of Champa, was faced with a real difficulty. In order to come to the conclusion that Champa might have borrowed from India through the Indian colonizers, it was naturally necessary for Parmentier to see such structures in India of some earlier dates than those of Champa. On this ground he is perfectly justified in denying a connexion of the Champa art with that of Cambodia and Java. So far as India is concerned, even in the absence of archaeological remains, there are convincing literary evidences which clearly show that Champa art might have easily migrated from India.

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Even on purely archaeological grounds, Dr. Majumdar and others have joined issue with M. Parmentier when the latter says that, ‘with the exception of the curved roof, no typical element of Indian architecture appears in Cham style, nor is any typical motif of the Cham art traceable in the old Indian style.’

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By way of refuting M. Parmentier, Dr. Majumdar rightly says that, ‘to us, the characteristic feature of a Cham temple seems to be its storied roof of several stages, in gradually diminishing proportions, each of which is again a miniature of the whole. Now this is the characteristic feature of what is known as the Dravidian style, The *rathas* of Mamallapuram and temples of Cenjeeveram and Badami of the seventh century a.d. are cited as examples. The essential resemblance between the *śikharas* of normal Cham temples and of the Dharmarāja Ratha and Arjuna Ratha is also referred to. The elongated curved roof with ogival ends has its counterpart in Gaṇeśa Ratha and Sahadeva Ratha. The third type of curved roof of Champa temples ‘ resembles Draupadi's Ratha, and is probably derived from those of North-Indian style, as Parmentier himself admits.’ It is, however, clear and natural that the Chams did not blindly imitate the Indian prototypes, but added new elements of their own. ‘ But the fact,’ concludes Dr. Majumdar, ‘ that their style was throughout based upon the essential and characteristic features of Indian style seems to be beyond question.’ Dr. Majumdar is equally convinced that Cham sculptures bear striking ‘ agreement with the Indian style in both essential and non-essential elements.’¹

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¹ Majumdar, *loc. cit.*, Vol. I, pp. 272–274.

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