Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c10: Chapter VI: 6. Śaiśunāga-Nanda Period

Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c10

Language: English

c10.s1 Mother-Goddess Ring-Stones — 30 parts
c10.s2 Mother-Goddess Śrī [Mātā Śrī Devī] — 2 parts
c10.s3 The Buddist Stūpa of Piparahwā and Its Relics — 5 parts

Chapter VI: 6. Śaiśunāga-Nanda Period

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We are now moving to the art remains of the historical period, of which the Cyclopian walls of Girivraja or old Rājagṛiha founded by the kings of the Bṛihadratha dynasty, new Rājagṛiha founded by Bimbisāra of Śaiśunāga dynasty, and Pāṭaliputra founded by Ajātaśatru are noteworthy for throwing light on the fort and city architecture, besides the burial mounds at Lauriā Nandangarh with their wooden pillar and gold plaque of the Mother Goddess, crystal reliquary and other semi-precious objects from the Piparahwā Stūpa, polished ring stones about 40 in number found at several ancient sites and the pre-Mauryan antiquities from the Bhīr mound at Taxila form the main items of study.

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Girivraja or the city of hills is said in the Mahābhārata to belong to the Bārhadrathas in which line Jarāsandha was a great ruler. The planning of the city and the execution of the stupendous walls of fortification was the work of a genius, an outstanding feat of architectural skill. The area is girdled by five hills mentioned in the Sabhā Parva (19. 2) and said to be rich in water and cattle wealth and full of a complement of large building (Veśmadhya). The hills are now known as Vaibhāra-giri in the north-west, Vipula-giri in the north-east, Ratnagiri in the east, Udaya-giri in the south and Soma-giri in the south-west. The five hills form a girdle like the walls of the town and their circuit is stated by Yuan-Chwang to be about 25 miles. Cunningham's survey on the spot shows it to be 8·3 miles only, but as the great rampart has also been traced up to Giriyeka which is about 6 miles in the east the statement of Yuan Chwang that the circuit of the wall was 25 miles seems to be correct. [Fig. 38].

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The old walls forming the exterior lines of rampart (Pāṣāṇa-prākāra) are still to be seen in many places and one ran in a continuous line from Vaibhāra to Vipula, from Vipula over Ratna-giri to the present Nekpai embankment, and then onward over Udai-giri and across the southern defile of the Bāṇa Gaṅgā to Sonagiri. The wall is built of massive unhewn stone blocks placed one above the other without any mortar. Its height varies at places rising upto 11-12 ft. At the southern outlet of the Bāṇa-Gaṅgā, the wall is still in good order being 13 ft. thick although varying to 17·5 ft. in thickness at other places. There are traces of steps on the inner side built in the wall itself, bastions at regular distances, and gateways thus presenting a picture of the fort wall complete with Aṭṭālaka and Gopura. [Fig. 39]. Inside the fort wall and in the centre of valley was the town proper, called Magadhapura in the epic, also surrounded by an inner wall about 5 miles in circuit which once contained the palace of Jarāsandha comprising three courts (*Tri-kakshyā*) as stated in the Sabhā Parva. Because of its strong defences Kṛiṣhṇa with Bhīma and Arjuna could find access not through the regular city gates but by scaling over the hills.

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Outside the bigger fort wall and to the north of it is the new Rājagṛiha founded by Bimbisāra and so named as to distinguish it from Girivraja or old Rājagṛiha. It is an irregular pantagon which also had an outer and an inner wall, the latter being 3·3 miles in circuit which was surrounded by ditches.

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Of the monuments on the Vaibhāra hill is the *Sapta-parṇi* cave situated to the west of the hot springs (*Taptoda-kuṇḍa*) and also *Pippala-guhā*. On Vaibhāra is also another cave, called *Sona-Bhaṇḍāra* or Treasury of gold, excavated in the rock being 34′ × 17′ × 11½′. By its side was another cave (22·5 ft. × 17 ft.), both once having a front verandah supported on pillars of which only socket holes now remain. The *Sapta-parṇi* cave consists of a series of seven chambers separated by natural walls of rocks running east and west, the various chambers being neither regularly shaped nor equal in size, but having in front of the cave a long narrow flat ledge of rock about 25 ft. wide. There were at one time many Stūpas on the Vaibhāra and Vipula hills made of large-sized bricks. Mount Vipula still is crowned by the ruins of a lofty Stūpa.

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In New Rājagṛiha a notable monument is the site of the citadel, 2000 ft. long and 1500 ft. broad, of which the stone walls retaining the earthen rampart are still in good order in many places and more massively and carefully built than the walls of the town. To the south-west of New Rājagṛiha Yuan Chwang had seen and described an Aśokan pillar (50 ft. high) with an elephant capital and also a Stūpa 60 ft. in height.

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Giriyeka now to the east of Rājagṛiha forms part of its architectural planning and was encircled by a rampart similar to that of Rājagṛiha. It is identified with the site of the ancient *Indra-Śaila Guhā* but at present one of its peaks is crowned by a solid tower of large bricks known as *Jarāsandha kā Baiṭhaka* and the other peak bears a flat terrace covered with ruins of several buildings, both connected with the foot of the hill by a steep pavement. [Fig. 40]

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Lauriā Nandangarh, a village known for its Aśokan pillar (whence its name, Skt. *Lakuṭa*, Hindi *Laur* लौर), is 15 miles north-west of Betiah in Champaran District, and is also the site of another interesting remains, viz. three rows of earthen barrows or huge conical mounds of earth, of which two of the rows lie from north to south, and the third from west to east. These were identified by Cunningham as sepulchral mounds and asigned to a period between 1500 B. C. and 600 B. C., associated in local tradition as the burial mounds of the Chakravartī king Uttānapāda.

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Fig. 39

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Their character of burial mound (*śmaśāna-chaitya*) seems to be supported by the wooden post found in the centre of one of them, known as the lofty *Chaitya-yūpa* (*chaitya-yūpa-ivochchhhritah*, Sabhāparva, 22 22; Krishna riding on Garuda looked like a lofty sacrificial pillar on the top of a burial mound). There are five barrows in the east and west row and six barrows in the inner north and south row, while the outer north and south row has four large and at least seven small barrows. The mounds in the row from east to west range in height 20 to 45 feet and all are made of clean earth and those in the north-south row from 15 to 55 feet. [Fig. 41].

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Two of the mounds are formed of a whitish clay, kneaded so hard that it turned the edges of common digging tools, and when freshly cut glistens and has a bluish tint. The clay is foreign to the surrounding area and must have been brought from a distance for a definite purpose. In the burial hymn there is mention of the depositing of clods of earth (*Loya*) over the body of the dead, raising a pillar (*Sthūṇā*) and making it firm on the earth (*Prithivī-stambhana*, RV. X. 18.13). Bloch actually found a *repoussé* gold plaque depicting the earth goddess in the characteristic pose of the ancient Mother-Goddess figurines, also depicted on ancient small rectangular metallic pieces from Rajgir (now one in Bhārat Kalā Bhavan and one in Lucknow Museum). [Fig. 42]

Mother-Goddess Ring-Stones

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As specimens of the earlier tradition of the worship of the Mother-Goddess, we find a number of ring-stones distributed from Taxila to Pāṭaliputra. They are of hard sandstone in black, violet or slate colour and are of flat discoiled form, with or without a hole in the centre and showing the Mother-Goddess in various combinations or only having plural geometrical patterns. The specimens obtained so far are as follows :

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1. A ring-stone from Mathura, now in the Indian Museum (ASI, AR. 1930-34, pl. cxxx. fig. 1). [Fig. 43].

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2. A ring-stone from Mathura, now in the Indian Museum (ibid, fig. 2).

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3. A circular sandstone plaque from Mathura, showing an eight-petalled lotus in the centre from which four stalks shoot out in the four directions and bend in various foliated patterns, showing on the terminal or pericarp eight female figures, in dancing hand-poses, four of which have survived on the semi-circular portion of the side. The female figures alternate with the design resembling the ‘muchukunda’ flower.

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⁴ A ring-stone from Mathura (diameter 3.5”; Mathura Museum, No. 2471) showing in the ceutre a full-blown lotus flower without spreading tendrils, of which the first band depicts four animals in the four intermediate directions, viz., a lion, an antelope, a bull and a stag, and the outer band showing four flowery motifs above the

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four animals, and in the four cardinal points four female figures (now effaced), the first holding a bow in left hand and a sheaf of arrows in the right; the second standing with her right hand holding a bowl and left placed on the hip; and the third figure with a trident in right hand and a double-sided Vajra in the left.

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5. Disc from Mathura (diameter 3·8", No. 2472, Mathura Museum), showing a decorative pattern of tendrils round a central point, a motif seen also on the ancient-most punch-marked coins. The whole pattern takes the form of the six-armed (ṣaḍara) symbol, each arm having the form of a triskeles (triphaṇa).

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6. Fragment of a ring-stone from Kosam, showing an outer and inner bands of rosette-flowers (now in the Allahabad Museum).

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7. One ring-stone from Rajghat (in Bhārat Kalā Bhavan), showing three Mother-Goddesses alternating with three liṅga-symbols flanked by two cobras and an outer band of trapezoid design.

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8. A fragment of a ring stone similar to No. 7 above, but encircled by a double outer band of similar design.

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9. Fragment of a ring-stone from Rajghat (now in Bhārat Kalā Bhavan) showing on the inside head and bust of the Mother-Goddess with the upper portion of a palm tree.

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10. A ring-stone fragment from Rajghat (Bhārat Kala Bhavan), showing two Mother-Goddesses on the inside and in the outer band two sprawling human figures floating in the air with a lizard in between them.

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11. Fragmentary ring-stone from Rajghat (now in the Bhārat Kalā Bhavan), showing in the inner band four Mother-Goddesses alternating with palm trees, three of whom are seen, and in the outer band a series of lizards or crocodiles (Makara) of whom there were originally eight, five being still preserved.

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12. Ring-stone from Rajghat (now in Lucknow Museum), showing on the inside five Śrīvatsa symbols alternating with five Muchukundas or honey-suckle motifs. The outer band is crowded by a number of figures, showing three palm trees and three Mother-Goddesses --(a) Mother-Goddess with hare on right and moon-symbol below, and deer on left with a taurine symbol in front of him; (b) Palm tree with a bird on right and an animal on left with the symbol of moon and sun clearly; (c) Mother-Goddess with a Sārasa-like bird on right, the figure on left effaced; (d) Palm tree of which only the lowermost portion of circular railing is now left; (e) Mother-Goddess, the full figure with splay-feet and stiff straight arms, and turbaned head, being preserved, flanked by two animals. The left one being a horse and having a solar symbol in front and a moon symbol below. In between the railing of the last palm tree and right leg of the Mother-Goddess is a small ring-stone; (f) Palm tree in railing with a bird on right and horse on left.

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13. A ring-stone from Taxila perfectly preserved; inside its central hole are three nude figures of the Goddess of fertility, wearing a prominent hood like some of the Kulli clay-figurines, alternating with three other figures, showing flames of Agni enkindled in an altar, flanked by two cobras. Round the innermost band are two outer bands of trapezoid figures or what may be described as a reel-and-bead border separated by cable-design (Marshall, MIC. 1, p. 62, pl. 13, fig. 14.)

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14. Another ring-stone from Taxila (ASIAR, 1920-21, pl xvii, fig. 29-30).

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15. A fragmentary disc from Taxila similar to number 13, showing the Agni and flanking serpents designed in a much clearer form and the two encircling bands are treated with a series of juxtaposed Damarū motifs, with a vertical slit in between each pair resembling the female Yoni.

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16. Fragmentary ring-stone from Taxila on which in the middle band was a row of twelve walking elephants, three of whom are preserved.

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17. One ring-stone from Basārh (ASI, AR. 1903-4, P. 100, fig. 16); HIIA. p. 20).

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18. A ring stone from Basārh or Vaiśālī, found in 1950 excavation, now in the Patna Museum.

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19. Complete ring-stone disc from Saṅkisā, with three Mother-Goddesses, three fan-palms and three taurines. Diameter 2". The second and third zones consist of the dog-tooth design (Champā-kali). (Cunningham, ASR, Vol. 11, Pl. 9. 3; Coomaraswamy, HIIA, P. 20, fig. 134).

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20. Cylinder-seal from Kosam in the CAA Museum, New Delhi, engraved with bird and animal figures in chequered pattern.

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21. A cylinderical seal from Rajghat showing a bull with a crib similar to that on the Indus Valley seals, bearing on the ring a Brahmī inscription.

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22. Ring-stones (21 stone discs) were found in Murtazi-ganj quarter of Patna city.¹

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¹ See the article ‘Stones Discs found at Murtaziganj’ by S. A. Shere, Journal of the Bihar Research Society, Vol. XXXAII, pts. 3-4, 1951.

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23. A ring stone from Patna City found in sewer excavations showing a fifteen-petalled lotus flower in the centre encircled by a beautiful garland of 18 taurines in smaller size, a motif well known in early art. It has a few letters engraved on the back but not yet deciphered.

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24. A ring stone from Patna City found in sewer excavation as above, showing three concentric bands, the first showing 21 lotus petals, the second 12 animals and birds including a horse, a lion, an elephant, a rhinoceros, moving in a file and the third a design like pencils of light.

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Recently three more ring stones from the Allahabad museum, find-spot unknown, have been published, the one showing two bands of crosses and cables and on the inside a Mother-goddess, flanked by a fan-palm; the second chocolate coloured showing in the outer band a row of *Makara* figures and in the inner a row of lions; and the third of grey stone showing honeysuckle or *‘Muchukunda’* flower, alternating with pairs of two birds perched on the two sides of the branch of a tree. (*Lalit Kala*, IX. 15, pl. 6, fig. 14).

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Another ring stone from Vaiśālī or ‘votive steatite circular disc from the strata, assigned to 150 B.C.—100 A.D., has a honeysuckle motif, *pipal* trees, winged lions and two attractive female figures carved on it’, who are the usual Mother-Goddesses (*Lalit Kala*, IX. 68).

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These are fortunately in perfect preservation and richly documented with the idea underlying this class of antiquities. They illustrate the figures of the Mother-Goddess, standing with splayed feet, stiff erect posture, nudity and a close resemblance with the figure on the gold plaque from Lauriā Nandangarh and with the clay-figurines from Taxila and other places, which are associated with the traditional form of the Great Goddess. The other features on these discs are figures of the palm tree, alternating with the Goddess, figures of animals of wide variety, e.g. lion, elephant, bull, horse (the four great animals of the Sārnāth Capital, depicted together on disc No. 7), dog, boar, stag, deer, ram. Amongst birds we find the goose, peacock, crane, heron, etc. The palm tree is oft-repeated with the Goddess and emphasises its intimate relation with the cult. We also find certain patterns of the central lotus or rayed solar orb, honey-suckle, triangles, taurines, crescents, etc. The figures or symbols on the Patna discs are essentially the same, found on the ring-stones or discs from Taxila, Mathura Kosam, Saṅkisā, Basārh, etc. The cult character based on an underlying unity of the deity is undoubted.

Mother-Goddess Śrī [Mātā Śrī Devī]

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What is the name of the Goddess and of the cult in the Indian tradition, are relevant questions to grasp the significance of these ring-stones or discs. The name for them is *‘Śrī-Chakra’* (also called *Śrī-Yantra* in the later tradition), being aniconic representations of the Mother Goddess worshipped both in human and symbolical form, which are in force upto this day. A commentary on the nature of the cult is available in the *Śrī-Sūkta*, an apocryphal hymn (*Khila-Sūkta*) at the end of the fifth Maṇḍala of the Ṛgveda. All the different characters found on the discs are included in the description, which certainly formed part of folk-lore poetry. The Goddess is there identified with earth (*Devī Kṣmā* or *Bhūmi*) and is named Mother-Goddess *Śrī* (*Devīṁ Mātram Śriyam*) and conceived of as the Mother of all creatures (*Prajā Bhūtā*) including animals (*Paśūnāṁ rūpam*), spouse of Viṣṇu (*Viṣṇu-patnīm*), and the supreme deity of the universe (*Sarva-bhūtānām Īśvarī*). She is associated with both Sun and Moon being called, Sūryā and Candrā. Lotus is her symbol as her seat (*Padme sthitā*), as the centre of her disc (*Padma-nemi*), as its encircling garland (*Padma-mālinīm, Puṣkariṇī*). She is born from the waters from which her lotus takes root (*adbhyah padmasambhavā*) surrounded by lotus-buds and leaves, as depicted on some of the discs.

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Her devotees in the cult were known as *Śrī-kāma* for whom she was both the Goddess of prosperity (*dhanadāyī* and *mahā-dhanā*) and fertility (*prajānām bhavasi mātā, putra-pautra-dhanam dhānyam karotu me*). Characteristic animals on the disc are included amongst her gifts, e.g. elephants (*hastī*), cows and horses (*Aśva-dāyī, Go-dāyī*). The later iconographic feature of the two elephants be-sprinkling her is here mentioned (*ārdrām kariṇīm*). She is the giver of food (*Annasya-rūpam*) whose Tree is the Bilva, but on the discs we find the palm tree depicted as the ancient symbol of all food, being the Tree of Life, the fruit of the fan-palm (*Flabella-formis*) being similar to that of the Bilva (*Aegle mermalos*). The Goddess is said to have the attribute of the golden rod enriched with golden necklaces (*Hema-mālinī suvarṇa-yaṣṭi*) which exactly corresponds to the Tree of Golden Necklaces depicted at Sāñchī. She loves the sound of trumpheting elephants (*Hasti-vāda-pramodinī*) as actually shown by the elephant-band on one of the discs. Her water cosmology is indicated by the encircling zone of *Makaras* depicted on two discs, and by her being spoken of as the daughter of the ocean in later legends. She is the Fleet Lady, but the worshipper wishes her stable stay in his home (*Anapagāminī-Lakṣmī*, same as *Achañchalā*), a pose shown by her feet turned outwards in the majority of figures, as also on the Lauriā gold-foil.

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The disc is conceived as her *Chakra* or *Maṇḍala*, as still known to the cult-worshippers (*Śrī-Chakra-Pūjaka*), which is a kind of citadel of the Goddess *Śrī*, *Śrī-Yantra*, being encircled by a rampart of gold (*Hiraṇya-prākāram*). That which is under the influence of the Goddess within the orbit of her *Chakra* is full of abundance (*Riddhi*), prosperity (*Dāna*), longevity (*Āyuḥ*), and progeny (*Prajā*). This by implication signifies that the range outside her *Chakra* is under the influence of Asuras and beyond the power of her golden splendour, and therefore under the sway of *Alakṣmī* (mentioned in the Atharva as *Pāpi-Lakṣmī*, 7. 115. 4), also named *Jyeṣṭhā-Alakṣmī* here, who is the symbol of *Abhūti* and *Asamṛiddhi*; both sisters occupy the inner and the outer regions of the *Chakra* respectively (*Yā antarā yāścha bāhyā*). In the *Sūkta*, *Śrī-Devī*, Goddess *Śrī* is definitely called *Devatā* (*Śrī-devī-devatā*), a conception popular in the epics where she is referred to as *Padmā-Śrī* (Ayodhyā kāṇḍa, 79.15; *Padminī-Lakṣmī-devī*, Sundara Kāṇḍa, 7. 14; *śarīriṇī padma-rupā Śrī*, Āraṇyaka Parva, 218. 3). The conception of *Śrī* and *Lakṣmī* was so old as the Yajurveda where they are adored as the two consorts of *Nārāyaṇa-Purusha Vishnu* (Yajus. 31. 22). Later on they are mentioned both separately as in *Śrī-Sūkta*, or in the Sabhā Parva (11. 40). *Śrī* and *Lakṣmī* are present in *Brāhmī-Sabhā* jointly or as a single Goddess.

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It is to be noted that this Goddess worshipped as the Great Mother from the oldest times was venerated throughout the country from Taxila to Orissa and by the followers of Buddhism, Jainism and Brāhmanism. Her popular origin is hinted at in several ways, i. e. by her identity with the Earth, and by her birth from the waters on the one hand and from heaps of cow-dung on the other (*Karishiṇī*).

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The meaning of the ring-stone is clear in the context of Indian religious beliefs. Sir John Marshall, making a probe into the meaning of these ring-stones, says: "It could hardly have been utilitarian, nor are they suited for personal ornaments. The nude figures engraved on them appear to represent a Goddess of fertility, perhaps the Earth-Goddess, *Prithivī*, and they point to the disc having served as votive offerings. The earth itself, it may be recalled, was conceived of as 'wheel-shaped' in the Ṛigveda, and is said to be 'circular' in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa. With these may be compared a seal from Harappa (No. 649) exhibiting the Goddess of Fertility with her legs wide apart, but portrayed upside down, with a plant issuing from her womb. These figures of the Fertility-Goddess are particularly significant, because the form of the ring-stones from Taxila and Kosam also call to mind the peculiar ring-stones from Harappa and Mohenjo-daro." (ASIAR. 1927-28, p.96).

The Buddist Stūpa of Piparahwā and Its Relics

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Amongst pre Mauryan relics those found inside the oldest known Stūpa at Piprahwā (Dist. Basti) on the Nepal border, 11 miles from Kapilvastu are most important. The Stūpa, 116 feet in diameter at the base and 21.5 feet in height at present, was built in brick (16"/11"/3") as a solid cupola, with excellent masonry, well and truly laid, containing inside it a great sandstone coffer, made out of a huge monolith with a lid fixed by clamps, having perfect edges, bespeaking the highest quality of craftsmanship. According to an inscription, the Stūpa was built by the Śākhyas, relatives of the Buddha, to enshrine a part of his original relics (*iyam salila nidhane Budhasa Bhagavate śakiyānam*). The stone box cointained in a casket not only some scraps of bone as relics but several hundreds of other articles of high artistic value, e.g. ornamental forms, flowers and leaves wrought in various semi-precious stones as carnellion, amythist, topaz, garnet, coral, crystal, shell and metal (*Ratna-pushpa*).

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6. ŚAIŚUNĀGA-NANDA PERIOD

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and gold (*Svarṇa-puṣpa*), all in exquisite designs. They included a squire gold leaf stamped with a lion, gold leaf stars, delicately carved miniature leaves of crystal and other substances, *Tri-ratna*, gold leaf cross, a coil of fine silver wire, *Svastika* stamped on gold leaf, taurine symbols stamped on gold leaf, small pearls, bead of beryl; topaz etc., a small bird in red-carnellion carved with great skill, an elephant in gold leaf, a figure of the Earth-Goddess stamped on gold foil closely resembling Earth-Goddess from Lauriā Nandangarh, another standing female figure heavily draped, having an elaborate fan-like coiffure, marked by some auspicious symbols fixed in the hair. A remarkable decorative design is found on a large disc of gold leaf, consisting of rows of whorls with six wavy arms going round a centre, an intricate form of *Āvarta*, covering the whole field in a symmetrical way forming an intricate *Vyūha*.

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Amongst other relics are pots, covered bowls, round relic-caskets, including one made of cut and polished crystal with a lid beautified on the top by a fish-design, most minutely worked and highly polished, which gives an indication of the extremely fine workmanship of the lapidarists, who lived and worked a couple of centuries before the execution of the Mauryan columns.¹ [Fig. 44]

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¹ See Sir Ashutosh Mookerjee Silver Jubilee Volume, Vol. III, pp. 425 to 428; JRAS, 1898, pp. 573-588.

Linked texts (5)

Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Śatapathabrāhmaṇa — Yājñavalkya & Śāṇḍilya (Vedic teacher), Sanskrit
Piprahwa
Lauria Nandangarh