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Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c13.s3: Padmavaravedikā

Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c13.s3

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Padmavaravedikā

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The highest perfection of Mathura art is seen in the carving of its railing comprised of uprights, cross-bars and copings, all of which were ornamented with decorative motifs and designs showing great originality and a richness greater than even that at Bharhut. Here the artists have accepted some of the older motifs specially of those of the variety of lotuses and also introduced many new ones specially those of fabulous creatures, and fish-tailed sea-monsters.

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There are two types of railing clearly distinguished at Mathura. An earlier one marked by several features, viz. 1. profusion of lotus designs in medallions, 2. the number of medallions which is generally three in the middle and one half each above and below, 3. bevelling of square edges to convert them into octagonal form (*aṭṭhaṃsika*), 4. absence of human or divine figures on pillars, 5. absence of human heads inside cross-bar medallions as are found at Bharhut, 6. carving in low relief. These features distinguish the railing the remains of which belong to the earlier Jaina Stūpa at Kaṅkālī Ṭilā. From an account in the Rāyapaseṇiya Sutta we know that this kind of railing was styled as *Padmavara-vedikā*. "Why, O Revered Sir ! is the Padmavaravedikā called by that particular name ?"

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"O Gautama ! It is called Padmavaravedikā since on its several parts (*dese dese*), in several places (*tahiṃ tahiṃ*), on the rails, on the stairway balustrades, on rail planks, in between two rails on the uprights, on their sides, on their copings, in between two pillars, on crossbars, in between crossbar sockets, on sides of crossbars, on the spaces between two cross-bars, on the wings, on the side balustrades, on the corner pillars, on spaces of the side pillars, were carved many kinds of lotus designs, viz. *utpala* (blue lotus), *padma* (red lotus), *kumuda* (lily), *subhaga*, *saugandhika*, *puṇḍarīka* (white lotus), *mahāpuṇḍarīka*, *śatapatra* and *sahasrapatra*...And it is for this reason, O Gautama, that the place is called *padmavaravedikā*."¹

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¹ से केणट्ठेणं भंते ! एवं वुच्चइ - पडमवरवेइया पडमवरवेइया ? गोयमा ! पडमवरवेइया णं तत्थ देसे देसे तहिं तहिं वेइयासु वेइयावाहासु य वेइयफलएसु य वेइयपुडंतरेसु य खंभेसु खंभबाहासु खंभसीसेसु खंभपुडंतरेसु सुईसु सुईमुखेसु सुईफलएसु सुईपुडंतरेसु पक्खेसु पक्खबाहासु पक्खपेरंतेसु पक्खपुडंतरेसु बहुयाइं उप्पलाई पउमाइं कुमुयाइं नलिणाई सुभगाई सोगंधियाइं पुंडरीयाइं महापुंडरीयाणि सयवत्ताइं सहस्सवत्ताइं सव्वरयणमयाइं अच्छाइं पडिरूवाई महयावासिकयछत्तसमा- णाई पण्णत्ताइं समणाउसो । से एणं अट्ठेण गोयमा ! एवं वुच्चइ - पडमवरवेइया पडमवरवेइया । *Rājapraśnīya Sūtra*, Vaidya edn. pp. 172-3.

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From the detailed mention of the numerous spaces available for ornamental carving it appears that the description was meant for a railing of timber construction. In the actual stone railing found at Mathura the spaces are reduced but the fact remains that the pillars and the cross bars are profusely ornamented with lotus designs of various forms. The most interesting decorative designs on this earlier railing at Mathura are the animal figures, e. g. fishtailed elephant (*hastimachchha*, *jalabha*, J. 427), fishtailed crocodile (*magaramachchha* J 421), fishtailed winged lion (*sapaksha vyāghramachchha*), fishtailed wolf, fishtailed griffin (*śyena machchha*). [Fig. 132]. To these marine motifs the *Aṅgavijjā* adds *naramachchha*, *gomachchha* and *assamachchha*. Another feature is the decoration of winged animals which is peculiar to Mathura, e.g. winged lion, winged antelope, winged wolf, winged goat, etc. The crossbars also illustrate many kinds of medallions containing a number of auspicious and decorative designs, e. g. *kalpavṛiksha* inside railing, winged auspicious conch (*bhadraśaṅkha*) oozing from its mouth a stream of punchmarked coins, *stūpa*, honey suckle (*muchakunda*), *bhikṣāpātra* placed on a raised pedestal, elephant, bull, deer, human-headed lion, wolf, and five petalled, eight, ten, twelve and many petalled lotuses.

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It is stated in the *Rāyapasēṇiya* that a variety of rhizomes decorated the ideal railing of Suryābhadeva, viz. *padmalatā*, *nāga-*, *aśoka-*, *champaka-*, *chūta-*, *vāsantī-*, *kunda-*, *atimukta-*, and *śyāmālatā*. Of these several may be seen in beautiful meanders on the uprights and copings, e. g. lotus creeper. [Fig. 133].

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The coping stones of this railing are of great artistic beauty decorated with a number of floral and animal designs, e.g. rows of bells (*gaṇṭāpaṅkti*) above and lotus creepers below. Amongst animals may be noticed, griffin, rhinoceros, fishfailed lion, tiger, bull and boar.

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Thus we see that the earlier sculptors who organised the magnificent *Padmavaravedikā* in its fullfledged form round a *Stūpa* were working on the basis of an extensive repertoire of motifs selected both for their decorative and religious significance but obviously inclined more on the aesthetic side. The artists were conscious of their obligation to the ornamental side of such an important architectural element as the *vedikā* which conferred on the Stūpa its full glory. In the actual railings either in wood or stone there were a number of other decorative features associated with the upright posts or gateways, e. g. *candana-kalaśa* (*pūrṇaghaṭa*), rows of *nāgadanta* or ivory projections with hanging garlands and necklaces, spotted waterpots (*bhiṅgāra*), mirror (Skt. *ādarśa*, Pkt. *āyamsa*), pendants (*śikya*) with incense pots, baskets full of flowers, unguents, ornaments, garments etc, throne, umbrella, *cāmara*, and ten kinds of *śṛṅgāra* caskets. Of these there are literary description as forming part of *vedikā* decoration but actual specimens are naturally wanting. There is one fact, however, which draws particular attention, viz. the great lotus garland (*mahāpuṣkara sraj*) with which the *vedikā* was actually decorated. It consisted of thousands of flowers interwoven with many varieties of floral wealth and foliage, and which in its gorgeous form was considered to be the choicest gift offered to adorn the body of the Stūpa. The presence of such a gigantic lotus garland in the carvings at Bharhut and Mathura makes us look back into a much greater antiquity when these objects were real, and points to a natural transition from actual specimens to engravings in art.

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The style of Mathura railing gives some indication of its very early date. The carving is all in low relief which is near to wooden prototypes. There is a want of human figures in alto-relievo. One of the very stricking features is that the Uttarakuru motifs of the wishfulfilling trees and creepers producing ornaments, clothes etc. which form such a common feature at Bharhut are completely absent in the Mathura railing pointing to the priority of the religious concept of the latter even to that of Bharhut. The Jaina tradition of the building of the Devanirmita Stūpa also assigns it to very early times, and it is likely that the Stūpa and the railing were put up in the 3rd century B.C.

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The architecture of the Stūpa and the railing found its own development at Mathura of which we find profuse evidence for the Kuṣāṇa period. As already pointed out, the Stūpas became elongated in form resembling the *mahābubula* or high water bubble. But the railing underwent the greatest change as shown by the following features: the pillars are square in section, they are generally divided into three sections on the front side, viz. a prominent male or female figure in the middle portion carved in bold relief, a crouching dwarf (*guhyaka*) below, and a projecting terrace often with human figures above. The human figures combine several traditions, viz. that of Yakshas and Yakshīs as at Bharhut, heavenly girls (*devakumārikās*) whose presence was necessary in a Stūpa, and that of women in social pastimes, donors and worshippers in *añjalimudrā*, and of divine figures. The pillars are decorated on their back with several Jātaka scenes, e. g. Śibi Jātaka, Vyāghrī J., Kachchhapa J., Ulūka J., Valahassa J.

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The artists of the Kushāṇa railing pillars both in the Jaina and Buddhist Stūpas were devoting their highest attention on the human figures carved on the front side. This fact with respect to the beauty of the female figures was noticed even in ancient times showing that the art connoisseurs also were conscious of this supreme fact which has made the Kushāṇa art of Mathura such a loving object in the eyes of modern critics. "The Śālabhañjikā women carved on the vedikā pillars were standing in various graceful poses, well-supported (on crouchant figures), beautifully ornamented, wearing garments painted in various colours, and necklaces of various designs, slender-waisted, having round prominent breasts, eyes with red corners and black curly hair, standing under Aśoka trees and holding their distended boughs, stealing the hearts of the gods as it were with their rolling glances and teasing as it were with the play of their eyes." (Rāyapaseniyasutta¹). We have actual specimens of both Buddhist and Jaina railings to which the above description equally applies. On the pillars of the Jaina Stūpa however there are no Jātaka scenes on the reverse. We learn from the Rāyapaseniyasutta that there were sixteen railing pillars (solasa solasa sālabhañjiyāparivāḍī) on each side of the toraṇa gateways which gives a total of sixty four pillars for the entire railing, a number which has actually been confirmed by the pillars of the Bharhut railing.

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¹ (तेसि णं दाराणं उभयो पासे दुहओ णिसिहियाए सोलस सोलस सालभंजियापरिवाडीओ पन्नत्ताओ) ताओ णं सालभंजियाओ लीलट्ठियाओ सुपइट्ठियाओ सुअलं कियाओ णाणाविहरागवसणाओ णाणामल्लपिणद्धाओ मुट्ठिगिच्छसुमज्झाओ आमेलगजमलजुयलवट्टियअब्भुण्णयपीणरइयसंठियपीवर-पओहराओ रत्तावंगाओ असियकेसीओ मिउविसयपसत्थलक्खणसंवेल्लियग्गसिरयाओ ईसि असोगवरपायवसमुट्ठियाओ वामहत्थग्गहियग्गसालाओ ईसि अद्धच्छिक्कडक्खचित्तिाणं लूसमाणीओ विव चक्खुल्लोयणलेसेहिं अन्नमन्नं खेज्जमाणीओ, etc. Rājapraśniya Sūtra, Vaidya edn. p. 134.

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ŚĀLABHAÑJIKĀ—The term śālabhañjikā originally denoted a female sport implying the gathering of śāla flowers by women standing under blossoming śāla trees. This was a kind of garden sport which was popular in eastern India referred to as prāchām krīḍā by Pāṇini (6.2.74). A graphic account of the śālabhañjikā festival is found in the Avadānaśataka which was undoubtedly based on a much earlier tradition. 'Once the Lord Buddha dwelt at Śrāvastī in the Jatvana, the garden of Anāthapiṇḍada. Now at that very time the festival called śālabhañjikā was being celebrated at Śrāvastī. Several hundred-thousands of beings assembled there and, having gathered śāla blossoms, they played, made merry and roamed about". And again quoting from the Nidānakathā the description of the śālabhañjikā festival celebrated in the Lumbinī

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garden : "Now between the two towns (Kapilavastu and Devadaha) there is an auspicious grove of śāla trees belonging to the people of both cities, and called Lumbinī grove. At that time from the roots to the topmost branches swarms of five-coloured bees, and flocks of birds of different kinds, roamed, warbling sweetly. The whole of Lumbinī Grove was like a wood of variegated creepers, or the well-decorated banqueting hall of some mighty king. The Queen beholding it was filled with the desire of disporting herself in the śāla grove (sālavanakīlaṃ kilitu-kāmatā) ; and the attendants entered the wood with the Queen. When she came to the root of an auspicious śāla tree, she wanted to take hold of a branch of it. The branch, bending down, like a reed heated by steam, approached within reach of her hand. Stretching out her hand she took hold of the branch, and then her pains came upon her."

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The motif of the woman plucking flowers from a distended bough is met with on the toraṇa of Bharhut and Sanchi in the Śuṅga period and is continued on the railing pillars of Mathura during the Kushāṇa period. It also appears in a limited number of examples in Gandhāra art of the Kushāṇa age, but the weak treatment of the subject there betrays its having been imported from the East. We have in the Kāśikā an example of a game played by people of the North known as Jīva-putra-prachāyikā. Vātsyāyana in the Kāmasūtra mentions as examples of deśya krīḍās (local sports) similar names ending in aka suffix, e. g. Sahakāra-bhañjikā, Abhyūsha-khādikā, Udaka-kshveḍikā, Bisakhādikā, Aśokottamsikā, Pushpāvachāyikā, Chūta-latikā, Damanabhañjikā, Ikshubhañjikā, etc.

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In the classical literature two kinds of sports are often mentioned, viz. Udyāna krīḍā (garden sports), salila-krīḍā (water sports). The Matanga Jātaka (4/376) describes how Diṭṭhamaṅgalikā the daughter of the rich merchant of Vārāṇasī used to go out with her female companions to celebrate the festival of Udyāna krīḍā. According to the Uddālaka Jātaka the priest of the king of Vārāṇasī took his beloved to the outer gardens of the city for enjoying garden sports. Aśvaghosha, Kālidāsa, Bhāravi, Māgha etc. have given vivid descriptions of such garden and water sports, showing that the tradition handed down from earlier times was much expanded in literature and art both of which were indebted to the realities of life.

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The Mathura artists were called upon to reorganise the railing, in which work they displayed much originality, and a broad outlook, mainly introducing a variety of motifs based on female pastimes and sports known as krīḍā-vihāra. It was the popular belief that Indra in heaven enjoyed with his nymphs and this form of pleasure became archetypal for kings on earth. These festive celebrations were ordered by royalty and were comprised of the following items :—1. tree and garden sports (udyāna-krīḍā) ; 2. water sports (udaka-krīḍā) ; 3. adorning the body with unguents, clothes and ornaments (gātra-maṇḍana, including painting minute scroll designs on cheeks, forehead, chin etc., called as viśeṣaka-racanā); 4. drinking wine in company with female companions (āpāna-goṣṭhī); 5. enjoying music to the accompaniment of lute (vaṁśī), flute (vīṇā) and drum (mṛdaṅga); 6. dance (nṛtya) which gave occasion to depict male and female figures in number of poses; and 7. amorous enjoyments (vilāsa or guhavihāra).

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The Mathura railing pillars present a rich canvas of these scenes which are made permanent in stone as reflecting the joyous feeling and buoyancy of life in that age. For example quite a number of pillars show the ancient silvan deities (vṛkṣhakas) standing under aśoka trees, and gathering flowers (puṣpochechaya). They represented in its complete form the śalabhañjikā and aśoka puṣpaprachayikā motif (e. g. J. 55,2355,199,483, B 80).

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The figures are shown standing on crouching dwarfs (avānmukha guhyaka) by which the artists wished to indicate that the older tradition of these female figures being Yakṣhīs was still accepted in popular belief. Sometimes the female figure is shown presenting flower basket or garlands to their male companions. An interesting new motif is that of aśoka-dohada in which a graceful young woman stands under an aśoka tree and bending low its branch with her left hand touches its stem with the left foot. (J. 55, 2345).

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The scene evidently illustrates the belief referred to in old Indian poetry that an aśoka tree could be made to blossom when kicked by a maiden with her left foot. It recalls a scene described later by Kālidāsa in his drama Mālavikāgnimitra in which the king watches the young heroine while she performs a dance in honour of the Aśoka tree's blossing and touches it with her left foot.

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A similar scene of Aśoka dohada is carved on an ivory plaque found at Begram or ancient Kapiśā. The head-dress in all these three figures is peculiar showing a spirally rolled scarf on the top of which hangs a braid of hair tied in a loop. It was this special hair style referred to by Aśvaghosha as Śuklāṁśuka aṭṭālaka keśa (Saundarananda 7. 7) or Kokila keśapāśa because of the upper black tuft of hair on the pile of white silk resembling the black bird seated on a tree of white flower.

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The another motif is that of weaving flower garlands and making a śekhara of the same. These were popular scenes of Puṣpochchaya, Puṣpagrathana and Puṣpābharaṇa, i.e. floral amusements of which the artist made the fullest use.

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The next round consisted of watery sports (Jalakrīḍā, Ambhovihāra). The literary descriptions include such items as mutual splashing of water (Udakaṭāḍana), dishevelled hair by the striking of watery spurts (keśakulamukhī), wet drapery (jalārdravasana,) same as (magnāṁśuka), bathing in knee-deep water (jānudeśabhugnā), drawing the hair with back to the sun (pṛṣṭhakṛtādityā keśanistoyakāriṇī), sitting on the stone bench near the pond (śilātalagatā), embracing each other, sprinkling coloured water with syringes, swimming in the lotus pond, diving and searching each other amongst lotuses etc. The Mathura sculptors have shown great ingenuity in depicting the aquatic sports; for example, bathing scene under a waterfall carved on two pillars preserved in the Lucknow museum. Of these J 278 shows a female figure in three-quarters profile standing to right under a projecting precipice and receiving on her back a stream of water coming down in swift torrents and collecting below in a pond.

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The next motif is that of a female figure standing against the stem of a tree and holding a large lotus flower in her hand. The lotus had prominent association with these sports. The motif is corresponding to the one described by Kālidāsa as Līlā-kamala held in the hand by sportive girls. In later Orissan art the same was known as Padma-gandhā i. e. a young woman smelling a lotus or holding it, whereas in western India she was known as Padminī or Sugandhā.

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On a Mathura pillar a woman after bath is shown standing with her back to the visitor and drying her hair by squeezing out water from her locks the drops being swallowed by a Haṃsa. The motif is described in the Matsya Purāṇa as that of Keśa-nistoyakāriṇī, indicated above (cf. also kabarī-niścyotana in Śṛiṅgaramañjarī of Bhoja), combined with it is a drinking scene in the balcony above. [Fig 134].

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After bathing sports men and women adorned their bodies with sandal paste, unguents and ornaments of which there are several examples on railing pillars now preserved. In one case we see a standing female figure adjusting a pendant in her right ear with the aid of a mirror (J 5), the same motif as Darpaṇa in Orissan art.

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Another motif in which women took great interest was their pastime with the parrots, the subject described elsewhere as Suka-sārikā. It was both a domestic and garden sport. On pillar No. 99 are carved a male and a female figure in which the female is feeding a parrot with a fruit held in her left hand. Pillar fragment No. 115 is carved with the torso of the female figure on whose right shoulder is a parrot. Obviously she was engaged in feeding the bird with her left hand now lost. A female figure standing on the back of a dwarf is holding a fruit near her right ear and coaxing a parrot (Pillar No. 258). A scene depicted on pillar No. 1595 also. From the point of art best pillar is from Bhūteśvara railing in which the warm woman is holding a cage in her suspended right hand, and has a parrot on her left shoulder. On a pillar from Kankali Tila the parrot is seated on the girdle of a dancing young woman and is nibbling at the knot in order to unbind it. [Fig. 135].

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There are some interesting scenes of ornamentation, e. g. pillar J 59 shows a woman with a long necklace, on pillar J 64 is the charming scene of a woman standing under a tree under Śālabhañjikā pose and looking in a mirror. Another pillar is carved with two toileting scenes, in the upper one Veṇī-prasādhana in which the woman is looking in the mirror held in her right hand and is arranging her frontal hair with the left, her husband is standing behind her and dressing her long braid falling on the back and interweaving with a garland (mālya-grathana). The female attendant is carrying a garland in a tray (mālya-changerī). In the lower panel the woman has completed her toilet and is looking in a mirror. Pillar No. J 62 shows a female figure standing to the proper left with her back and right foot against the trunk of the tree and playing a harp with shell plastron (vīṇā-vādana). [Fig. 136].

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Dancing also formed part of merriment scenes. In one figure No. 562 we see a young woman elegantly holding a scarf above her head. In the balcony above the artist has accommodated a scene of a Garuḍa seizing a Nāga. On more than half a dozen pillars we see a young woman unloosing her girdle or under-garment, a subject which is treated both in Śuṅga and Kuṣāṇa art. Probably she represented the Mahā-nartakī. It should be remembered that nudity now a common feature on these railing pillars was originally concealed by suitable painting. Kālidāsa has furnished sure indication that the female figures on pillars were once decorated with various paints¹. The subject of some other pillars shows a youthful woman holding a sword (J63 & 2575, 152, J275, B 79, 278). In later art this subject was styled as Urvaśī or Menakā but the exact references in early art are wanting. Perhaps they were meant to depict amazonian guards in royal palaces. A theme which appeard to be somewhat uncommon, a delectable motif is that of a young girl engaged in Kaṇḍuka krīḍā or playing with a ball (J 61). Several pillars also show male and female donors standing with their hands in adoration (añjali-mudrā) and sometimes holding bunches of lotus flowers. These obviously represent the tradition of the figures of the donors carved on the sides of the doorways in the rock excavation. [Fig. 137].

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¹ stambheshu yoshitpratiyātanāmutkrāntavarṇakramadhūsarāṇām | Raghu. 16.17.

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At Mathura a stage had been reached when Buddhist figures were welcomed on the railing pillars. For example, we find the figures of standing Indra with his projecting head-dress and folded hands; the Jātaka of Ṛiṣya-śṛiṅga (J 7) a faun-like figure of a well-built young man with a horny projection on the head; but more specially figures of the Bodhisattva standing under a Pīpal tree or with a scalloped halo (hasti-nakha-prabhā-maṇḍala) (No. J 18), Buddha standing in abhaya-mudrā under a Pīpal with halo round the head (194). Working in the older tradition the artist could not ignore the Buddhist symbol and we actually find the Dharmachakra (438) and Bodhi-maṇḍa (464). One cannot miss the importance given to Yakshas and grotesque figures which have now been allotted a secondary place, as vehicles of beautiful young female figures but there are some scenes in which we find kneeling bearded Yakshas (205) and a corner railing with a couple of dwarfs. [Fig. 138].

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In later literature these females are sometimes styled as *Alasa Kanyā* or *Alasā* whose special feature was the stretching of youthful limbs specially by throwing the arms above the head in a languid manner. This was an amorous pose of an indolent woman filled with intoxication of love and we find these poses on a couple of pillars in Mathura art (e. g. 196 & 977). A famous religious figure in Mathura art is that of the mother goddess *Śrī-Lakshmī* standing on a *Pūrṇaghaṭa* in the attitude of giving milk. This scene is also repeated on a railing pillar No. 286.

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In the *Saundarananda* of Aśvaghosha particular reference is made to the painting of decorative designs with black *agaru* and sandal paste on the cheeks and face and we have actually on the Mathura pillar the representation of this subject (No. 257) (*Viśeshaka-rachanā*).

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A favourite motif of *Krīḍa-Vihāra* was that of drinking scene (*āpāna-goshṭhī*) which has found a place on several pillars e. g. J 9 and 404 in which a woman shown standing under a tree holds a wine cup in her right hand as in Bacchanalian groups.

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Another motif perfect in its aesthetic treatment is that of Mother and Child in which a young woman is holding a child in her lap or coaxing the boy with a rattle (J 16), styled as *Mātṛ-mūrti* in later Orissan art and *Putra-vallabhā* in the art of western India. In one case the female is carrying a pitcher on her head and wearing rustic dress. In Mathura art she would be the typical *Gopikā* but later on styled as *Jayā* with a *Kumbha* on head. On another pillar (148) she is shown carrying an incense burner placed on the shaft (*Daṇḍa-dīpa*). [Fig. 139].

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It was natural that the Kushāṇa sculptors should find place on these railing pillars for Indo-Scythian men and women in worshipful attitude, the former being shown in Northern dress (*Udīchya veśa*) consisting of a conical cap, a long tied coat, trousers and thick boots (J 37, J 38. J 43).

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It will thus appear that the railing round the Stūpas was planned by the Mathura artisans in a new context and unique richness of motifs seldom seen before. It was a rich creation of beauty, artistic variety and a real joy drawn from life. The railing had now reached its highest point of perfection both for its themes and artistic treatment.¹

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¹ After the Kushāṇa period by about the 4th century the railing receded into the background and in the Buddhist and Brāhmanical shrines that appeared in the Gupta period the railing had merged itself into high plinth, in an altered form but the motifs and the female figures on pillars had such a strong

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